Type I/II Immune Balance Contributes to the Protective Effect of AIF-1 on Hepatic Immunopathology Induced by Schistosoma japonicum in a Transgenic Mouse Model

Schistosomiasis is the second most debilitating neglected tropical disease in the world. Liver egg granuloma and fibrosis are the main damage of schistosomiasis. In this study, the role of allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) in liver pathology and its regulation in immune responses were investigated in a transgenic mouse infected with Schistosoma japonicum. We found that AIF-1 overexpression reduced worm burden and decreased egg granuloma sizes and serum alanine aminotransferase levels, along with inhibited hepatic collagen deposition and serum hydroxyproline levels during S. japonicum infection. Moreover, AIF-1 overexpression resulted in an increased ratio of Th1/Th2, increased levels of IFN-γ and T-bet, and lower levels of GATA-3 in the spleen, accompanied by increased M1 percentages, decreased M2 percentages, and thus a higher ratio of M1/M2 in the peritoneal cavity and liver. AIF-1 induced CD68 and iNOS mRNA expression and protein levels of cytoplasmic p-P38 and nuclear NF-κB, along with enhanced levels of TNF-α and TGF-β in macrophages in vitro. Moreover, the hepatic pathology had a negative correlation with Th1/Th2 and M1/M2 ratios in the infected mice. The findings reveal that the beneficial role of AIF-1 in alleviating hepatic damage is related to restoring type I/II immune balance in S. japonicum infection.

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 enhances inflammation and oxidative stress via the NF-κB pathway of bladder urothelium in diabetic rat model

OBJECTIVES

To explore the role of allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) both in diabetic rat bladder urothelium and in high-glucose-treated human urothelial cell line (SV-HUC-1).

METHODS

Inflammation and oxidative stress (OS) promote diabetic cystopathy (DCP), but the mechanisms are not fully understood. The expression level of AIF-1 in diabetic rat bladder urothelium and in the SV-HUC-1 cells treated with high glucose was detected using tissue immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry and western blot assays. AIF-1 was knocked down and NF-κB was suppressed with the specific inhibitor BAY 11-7082 in high-glucose-treated SV-HUC-1 cells.

RESULTS

High-glucose condition induced AIF-1 upregulation in vivo and in vitro. The up-regulated AIF-1 induced the production of inflammatory factors IL-6 and TNF-α and elevation of ROS. Informatics analysis suggested that NF-κB pathway is implicated in DCP. Through knockdown of AIF-1, we confirmed that AIF-1 simulated NF-κB pathway by enhancing the phosphorylation of IκB (p-IκB) and promoting the translocation of NF-κB p65 from cytoplasm into nucleus. Additionally, High-glucose-induced inflammation in SV-HUC-1 cells was attenuated by the addition of NF-κB inhibitor.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides novel information to understand the molecular regulation mechanisms of AIF-1 in DCP.

Inhibition of AIF-1 alleviates laser-induced macular neovascularization by inhibiting endothelial cell proliferation via restrained p44/42 MAPK signaling pathway

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading blinding disease worldwide, and macular neovascularization (MNV) is a common complication encountered in the advanced stages of AMD. While the underlying causes of MNV remain elusive, aberrant multiplication of choroidal endothelial cells (CECs) and increased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are thought to play significant roles in the occurrence and development of MNV. Allograft inflammatory factor-1(AIF-1) is a crucial regulatory factor of vascular tubular structure formation and growth, involving the proliferation and migration of vascular endothelial cells and various tumor cells. This study aimed to understand how AIF-1 effects the proliferation of CECs and the subsequent progression of MNV. To study this, a mouse MNV model was established through laser injury, and the AIF-1 expression levels were then measured using western blot and immunohistochemistry. AIF-1 siRNA was intravitreally injected to silence AIF-1 gene expression. Western blot and choroidal flat mount were performed to measure the progression of MNV and proliferation of the CECs. These results showed that the protein expression of AIF-1 was significantly elevated in the laser-induced mouse MNV model, and the expression trend was consistent with VEGF. The protein level of AIF-1 was significantly decreased after the intravitreal injection of AIF-1 siRNA, the damage range of laser lesions was significantly reduced, and the proliferation of endothelial cells was inhibited. Knockdown of the AIF-1 gene significantly inhibited the expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase p44/42 in MNV lesions. In summary, this research demonstrates that AIF-1 promoted MNV progression by promoting the proliferation of CECs and that silencing AIF-1 significantly ameliorates MNV progression in mouse models, which may act through the p44/42 MAPK signaling pathway. AIF-1 could be a new potential molecular target for MNV.

Response of Sabella spallanzanii to multiple stressors. The combined effect of infection and copper sulphate

The aim of this work is to study the immune responses of the polychaete Sabella spallanzanii after exposure to copper sulphate, an immunomodulating agent in marine organisms, and the multiple stresses caused by Escherichia coli infection, to validate the species as a model organism in marine-coastal biomonitoring programmes. Polychaetes were housed in laboratory and divided into five experimental groups: 1. Control (no microinjected), 2. filtered seawater + TBS injection (control of point 3), 3. filtered seawater + E. coli injection (control of point 4), 4. CuSO₄ + TBS injection (control of point 5), and 5. CuSO₄ + E. coli injection. The immune variables, esterase and alkaline phosphatase activity, cytotoxicity and detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase were evaluated in total body extracts of the animals. Moreover, toll-like receptor, allograft inflammatory factor-1, lysozyme and haemagglutinating activity were investigated to highlight possible interactions. Indeed, the results of this work demonstrate the immunomodulating effect of copper sulphate on S. spallanzanii total body extracts related to oxidative stress and inflammatory markers.

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 stimulates inflammatory properties of peripheral blood leukocytes and increases cell viability via enhancing mitochondrial function in Ctenopharyngodon idellus

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) is a 17 kDa calcium-binding protein associated with numerous inflammatory diseases. The full-length cDNA of AIF-1 has been identified in grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idellus in our previous study, and it was assumed to be a novel molecule involved in immune responses. To clarify this aspect, the level of AIF-1 expression was amplified and reduced in grass carp peripheral blood leukocytes via transfection of vector pcDNA3.1-AIF1-EGFP and pLKO.1-shRNA-EGFP-puro, respectively. Thereafter, AIF-1 stimulated cell proliferation, inhibited cell apoptosis, which might benefit from improved mitochondrial function as evidenced by increased mitochondrial membrane potential, subsequently promoted ATP production. In addition, AIF-1 induced leukocyte migration via up-regulated monocyte chemotactic protein-1(MCP-1) secretion, enhanced neutral red uptake into leukocyte, provoked pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL1β), interleukin 6 (IL6), interleukin 8 (IL8) and suppressed anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10 (IL10) production. These results indicated AIF-1 played a critical role in grass carp innate immune system.

AIF-1 and RNASET2 are involved in the inflammatory response in the Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis following Vibrio infection

Filter-feeding bivalves, such as the Mytilus species, are exposed to different types of bacteria in the surrounding waters, in particular of the Vibrio genus. Mussels lack an adaptive immune system and hemocytes can recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to activate intracellular signaling pathways to trigger the antimicrobial effectors synthesis. Among the areas of bivalve immunity that deserve study include the role of hemocyte subpopulations. Since little information are available on immune responses at the tissue level to human pathogenic vibrios commonly detected in coastal waters involved in seafood-borne diseases, in this work, immunological parameters of the hemocytes from the Mediterranean mussel M. galloprovincialis were evaluated in response to in vivo challenge with Vibrio splendidus. The histological approach has been first used in order to identify the hemocytes recruitment at the infection site and the morphological change of muscular fibers. In addition, using immunolabeling with specific antibody we detected the production of molecules involved in the inflammatory activated cascade: Toll-like receptors 4 (TLR4), the myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), the Allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) and the ribonucleases RNASET2, belonging to the T2 family, that in vertebrates are involved in the recruitment and activation of macrophages. Our results indicate the activation of TLR4 during bacterial infection preparatory to the recruitment of the MyD88 adapter with a putative role in recognition and intracellular signalling. Furthermore, the data presented in this work suggest that challenging with Gram-negative bacteria causes a massive migration of AIF-1⁺ hemocytes and that the ribonuclease RNASET2 could play a key role in the recruitment of these activated hemocytes. Our approach is useful for further understanding the complex molecular defence mechanisms of the host in invertebrates, especially in relation to the need to develop methods to evaluate the immunological response of bivalve molluscs used in aquaculture.

Evaluation of AIF-1 (Allograft Inflammatory Factor-1) as a Biomarker of Crohn's Disease Severity

Background: Recently, increased tissue levels of AIF-1 have been shown in experimental colitis, supporting its role in intestinal inflammation. Therefore, we studied the levels of AIF-1 in Crohn’s disease (CD). Methods: This study included 33 patients with CD (14 men and 19 women) who participated in the PREDICROHN project, a prospective multicenter study of the Spanish Group of Inflammatory bowel disease (GETECCU). Results: This article demonstrates declines with respect to baseline levels of serum AIF-1 in Crohn’s disease (CD) patients after 14 weeks of treatment with anti-TNFs. Furthermore, in patients with active CD (HB ≥ 5), serum AIF-1 levels were significantly higher than those in patients without activity (HB ≤ 4). The study of serum AIF-1 in the same cohort, revealed an area under the ROC curve (AUC) value of AUC = 0.66 (p = 0.014), while for the CRP (C-reactive protein), (AUC) value of 0.69 (p = 0.0066), indicating a similar ability to classify CD patients by their severity. However, the combination of data on serum levels of AIF-1 and CRP improves the predictive ability of these analyses for classifying CD patients as active (HB ≥ 5) or inactive (HB ≤ 4). When we used the odds ratio (OR) formula, we observed that patients with CRP > 5 mg/L or AIF-1 > 200 pg/mL or both conditions were 13 times more likely to show HB ≥ 5 (active CD) than were those with both markers below these thresholds. Conclusion: The development of an algorithm that includes serum levels of AIF-1 and CRP could be useful for assessing Crohn’s disease severity.

Correlation of AIF-1 Expression with Immune and Clinical Features in 1270 Glioma Samples

AIF-1 gene is surrounded by the genes involved in the inflammatory response and located in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class III genomic region. It has been found that microglial cells expressed the AIF-1 gene during all stages of mice brain development. However, the role of AIF-1 remains unclear in glioma. A total of 1270 glioma patients from three independent data sets were enrolled in the study. TIMER platform was used for comprehensive molecular characterization of tumor immune infiltrates. Sangerbox was used to analyze AIF-1 RNA sequencing expression data of tumors and normal samples, and to evaluate the association between AIF-1 expression and 29 sub-populations of immune cells. The R language 3.63 was used to identify differentially expressed genes for Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and univariate/multivariate Cox analysis were used to examine survival distributions. We found that AIF-1 gene was prominently up-regulated, especially in brain glioma including LGG and GBM. A strong correlation was observed between AIF-1 expression and the majority of immune cells, particularly in macrophage, myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Moreover, AIF-1 expression was correlated with immune infiltration level. We found that AIF-1 expression was strongly correlated with the specific immune and prognostic cell markers of monocytes, microglia and macrophages, M1 macrophages, and M2 macrophages after normalization through tumor purity in TCGA-LGG and TCGA-GBM. Higher expression level of AIF-1 was found to be significantly correlated with poor prognosis. GO analysis and KEGG pathways indicated that AIF-1 could affect glioma-related immune activities. Our study suggests that AIF-1 can be treated as a prognostic biomarker for glioma patients. AIF-1 was involved in pro-tumor processes and the regulation of immune status and correlates with poor prognosis.

Serum concentrations of S100-A11 and AIF-1 are elevated in cervical cancer patients with lymph node involvement

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to compare the serum levels of TFF3, AIF-1, S100-A11 and DKK1 in surgically staged patients with cervical cancer, and in healthy female controls.

METHODS

In total 85 consecutive patients dia-gnosed at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital in Olomouc with cervical cancer undergoing radical hysterectomy or fertility sparing surgery with pelvic lymphadenectomy were included. Ninety patients who underwent elective total hysterectomy for nonmalignant disorder represented a control group. In all patients, preoperative serum samples were taken and separated; the sera were all stored at -80 °C until analysis for TFF3, AIF-1, S100-A11 and DKK1.

RESULTS

According to the final histopathological examination, 32 (40.5%) out of 79 cervical cancer patients with microscopically examined lymph nodes were lymph node-positive. S100–A11 (P < 0.0001) and AIF-1 levels (P < 0.0001) were higher in cervical cancer patients than in controls. Furthermore, the serum levels of S100–A11 (P > 0.04) and AIF-1 (P > 0.01) were significantly higher in lymph node-positive patients as compared to lymph node-negative patients. The levels of TFF3 and DKK1 were higher (P < 0.0001) in controls than in cervical cancer patients and were not different in groups with or without nodal involvement..

CONCLUSION

S100-A11 and AIF-1 represent potential bio-markers in patients with cervical cancer. Moreover, the levels of S100-A11 and AIF-1 increase in patients with lymph node  involvement.

Elevated serum concentrations of S100-A11 and AIF-1 in cervical dysplasia patients

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to compare TFF3, AIF-1, S100-A11 and DKK1 serum levels in patients with cervical dysplasia, and in healthy female controls.

METHODS

The first group included 59 patients with a histological dia-gnosis of precancerous disease CIN 1. The second group included 198 patients with a histological dia-gnosis of precancerous disease CIN 2 or CIN 3. The control group was comprised of 90 patients who underwent elective total hysterectomy for nonmalignant disorders. In all patients, preoperative serum samples were taken and separated; the sera were all stored at -80°C until the analysis for TFF3, AIF-1, S100-A11 and DKK1.

RESULTS

The serum levels of S100–A11 (P < 0.0001) and AIF-1 (P < 0.0001) were statistically significantly higher in patients with mild precancerous lesions (CIN 1) than in controls. The levels of TFF3 and DKK1 were not statistically significantly different in patients with CIN 1 and in the control group. The serum levels of S100–A11 (P < 0.0001) and AIF-1 (P < 0.0001) were statistically significantly higher in patients with severe precancerous lesions (CIN 2/3) than in controls. TFF3 and DKK1 levels were not statistically significantly different in patients with CIN 2/3 compared to controls.

CONCLUSION

S100-A11 and AIF-1 represent potential bio-markers in patients with cervical dysplasia.

Allograft Inflammatory Factor-1 in Metazoans: Focus on Invertebrates

Simple Summary

During their life, all living organisms defend themselves from pathogens using complex strategies. Vertebrates and invertebrates share mechanisms and molecules that guarantee their overall bodily integrity. Allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) is a protein extensively studied in vertebrates, and especially in mammals. This factor, generally involved in inflammation events occurring upon pathogenic infection or tissue injury, is linked to several important human diseases. This review collects data on the presence and role of AIF-1 in invertebrates, which are still poorly investigated organisms. Multiple alignment and phylogenetic analysis reveal that AIF-1 is conserved in vertebrates and invertebrates, suggesting similarity of functions. In some invertebrate species, the expression of AIF-1 increases considerably after a bacterial challenge, indicating that it plays a key role during the immune responses. This review highlights the importance of studying this protein in invertebrates as a way to improve our knowledge of innate immunity mechanisms and to better understand inflammatory regulation events in mammals.

Abstract

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) is a calcium-binding scaffold/adaptor protein often associated with inflammatory diseases. Originally cloned from active macrophages in humans and rats, this gene has also been identified in other vertebrates and in several invertebrate species. Among metazoans, AIF-1 protein sequences remain relatively highly conserved. Generally, the highest expression levels of AIF-1 are observed in immunocytes, suggesting that it plays a key role in immunity. In mammals, the expression of AIF-1 has been reported in different cell types such as activated macrophages, microglial cells, and dendritic cells. Its main immunomodulatory role during the inflammatory response has been highlighted. Among invertebrates, AIF-1 is involved in innate immunity, being in many cases upregulated in response to biotic and physical challenges. AIF-1 transcripts result ubiquitously expressed in all examined tissues from invertebrates, suggesting its participation in a variety of biological processes, but its role remains largely unknown. This review aims to present current knowledge on the role and modulation of AIF-1 and to highlight its function along the evolutionary scale.

Role of allograft inflammatory factor-1 in the regulation of inflammation and oxidative stress in primary peritoneal mesothelial cells

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is often used to treat patients with end stage renal disease, and its long-term complications include excessive inflammation and oxidative stress. Allograft inflammatory factor 1 (AIF-1), as a cytoplasmic protein, is originally identified from infiltrating macrophages, and it was associated with inflammation in the cells other than macrophages, such as endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells. To clarify the molecular mechanisms of AIF-1-modulated pathological changes in the peritoneum during PD, we first detected the AIF-1 expression in peritoneal tissues from PD mice. Results revealed that the pro-fibrotic stimulation caused AIF-1 upregulation and triggered inflammation in peritoneal tissues, and that AIF-1 co-expressed with pan-cytokeratin (a marker of peritoneal mesothelial cells). We next treated primary mouse peritoneal mesothelial cells (pan-cytokeratin and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 positive cells) with 50 or 100 ng/mL recombinant AIF-1, and evaluated the direct effects of AIF-1 on these cells in vitro. We found that exogenous AIF-1 treatment induced inflammation and oxidative stress in mesothelial cells. Apart from the augmented IL-6 and TNF-α secretion, the level of ROS was upregulated and the activity of anti-oxidative SOD was reduced in cells exposed to AIF-1. Moreover, AIF-1 simulation triggered the activation of NF-κB pathway-enhanced the conversion of IκB to phosphorylated IκB and promoted the translocation of NF-κB p65 from cytoplasm into nucleus. Additionally, AIF-1-evoked inflammation in peritoneal mesothelial cells was attenuated by the addition of NF-κB inhibitor (BAY 11-7082). In brief, this study provides us novel information to understand the molecular regulation mechanisms of AIF-1 in peritoneal fibrosis.

New serum tumor markers S100, TFF3 and AIF-1 and their possible use in oncogynecology

OBJECTIVE

To review a literature about possible new blood serum gynecologic tumor markers, S100 proteins family, trefoil factor 3 and AIF-1.

DESIGN

Literature review.

SETTING

Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Palacky University and University Hospital in Olomouc.

METHODS

Literature review of articles published in PubMed database till January 2019.

RESULTS

The association of S100A2, S100A4, S100A6, S100A7, S100A8, S100A9 and S100A11 with breast carcinoma has been demonstrated in the literature. The association of S100A2, S100A4, S100A6, S100A7A, S100A10, S100A14, S100A16, S100B, S100P (up-regulation associated with a lower survival) and S100A1, S100A13, S100A5, S100A13 and S100G proteins (up-regulation associated with a better survival) have been demonstrated in ovarian cancer patients. Cervical carcinoma has been shown to be associated with the S100A9 protein. TFF3 association with endometrial cancer, breast cancer (worse prognosis) and ovarian cancer (better prognosis) has been demonstrated. AIF-1 has been shown to increase expression in cervical cancer.

CONCLUSION

Tumor markers can be a very useful tool for patient management when used appropriately. Further research in this area and the search for new tumor markers, including S100, TFF3 and AIF-1, are needed. In future studies, scientists should focus not only on one time point, but assess the trend of the tumor markers for a specific time axis.

Allograft Inflammatory Factor-1 Mediates Macrophage-Induced Impairment of Insulin Signaling in Adipocytes

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) is an inflammatory cytokine produced mainly by macrophages within human white adipose tissue. Its expression is increased in obese subjects and positively correlated with insulin resistance. The purpose of this study is to characterize the regulatory role of AIF-1 in insulin signaling of adipocyte.

METHODS

AIF-1 was over-expressed via transfection of AIF-1 cDNA into murine RAW 264.7 macrophages, and the constitutive expression of AIF-1 was decreased via transfection of targeting siRNA. Murine 3T3L1 adipocytes were treated with macrophage-conditioned medium or AIF-1 protein. Intracellular lipid accumulation was assayed by oil red O stain. Reactive oxygen species production was determinated by a flow cytometer and adipokine secretion was measured with ELISA. Glucose uptake was detected using the glucose oxidase method and insulin-signal-transduction related molecules were analyzed by Western blot.

RESULTS

Short term (48 h) AIF-1 treatment slightly promoted intracellular lipid storage in differentiating 3T3L1 cells. The protein stimulated reactive oxygen species production, provoked TNFα, IL6, resistin, but suppressed adiponectin release and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake both under normal basal and insulin resistance conditions. Furthermore, AIF-1 induced NF-κB activation, inhibited PPARγ expression, GLUT4 translocation to plasma membrane and Akt phosphorylation.

CONCLUSION

Macrophage-derived AIF-1 up-regulated reactive oxygen species production, adipokine TNFα, IL6, resistin release, and inhibited adiponectin secretion. Moreover, it suppressed insulin-stimulated glucose uptake by down-regulating insulin signaling. Thus, AIF-1 could be related to obesity-related diseases.

Some Galeomorph Sharks Express a Mammalian Microglia-Specific Protein in Radial Ependymoglia of the Telencephalon

Ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1), also known as allograft inflammatory factor 1 (AIF-1), is a highly conserved cytoplasmic scaffold protein. Studies strongly suggest that Iba1 is associated with immune-like reactions in all Metazoa. In the mammalian brain, it is abundantly expressed in microglial cells and is used as a reliable marker for this cell type. The present study used multiple-label microscopy and Western blotting to examine Iba1 expression in the telencephalon of 2 galeomorph shark species, the swellshark (Cephaloscyllium ventriosum) and the horn shark (Heterodontus francisci), a member of an ancient extant order. In the swellshark, high Iba1 expression was found in radial ependymoglial cells, many of which also expressed glial fibrillary acidic protein. Iba1 expression was absent from most cells in the horn shark (with the possible exception of perivascular cells). The difference in Iba1 expression between the species was supported by protein analysis. These results suggest that radial ependymoglia of the elasmobranchs may be functionally related to mammalian microglia and that Iba1 expression has undergone evolutionary changes in this cartilaginous group.

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 in grass carp (Ctenopharynogodon idella): Expression and response to cadmium exposure

Allograft Inflammatory Factor-1 (AIF-1) is an inflammation responsive protein that is mainly produced by immunocytes. As a pro-inflammatory cytokine, AIF-1 is a key moderator in host immune defense reaction. However, the inflammatory properties of AIF-1 in freshwater fish still hasn't been clearly elucidated. In the present study, AIF-1 was identified from grass carp (Ctenopharynogodon idella). It's transcript was found in all examined tissues including brain, spleen, kidney, liver, heart, while a relative low level in red muscle, gill, thymus, white muscle, intestine and fin. Furthermore, AIF-1 transcription and expression level decreased in spleen and didn't change a lot in kidney with cadmium induction, respectively. The result indicated that grass carp AIF-1 might be involved in cadmium-induced stress.

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 stimulates chemokine production and induces chemotaxis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) is expressed by macrophages, fibroblasts, endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells in immune-inflammatory disorders such as systemic sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and several vasculopathies. However, its molecular function is not fully understood. In this study, we examined gene expression profiles and induction of chemokines in monocytes treated with recombinant human AIF (rhAIF-1). Using the high-density oligonucleotide microarray technique, we compared mRNA expression profiles of rhAIF-1-stimulated CD14(+) peripheral blood mononuclear cells (CD14(+) PBMCs) derived from healthy volunteers. We demonstrated upregulation of genes for several CC chemokines such as CCL1, CCL2, CCL3, CCL7, and CCL20. Next, using ELISAs, we confirmed that rhAIF-1 promoted the secretion of CCL3/MIP-1α and IL-6 by CD14(+) PBMCs, whereas only small amounts of CCL1, CCL2/MCP-1, CCL7/MCP-3 and CCL20/MIP-3α were secreted. Conditioned media from rhAIF-1stimulated CD14(+) PBMCs resulted in migration of PBMCs. These findings suggest that AIF-1, which induced chemokines and enhanced chemotaxis of monocytes, may represent a molecular target for the therapy of immune-inflammatory disorders.