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Stankovic M, Mishra AK, Rahayu YP, Lefcheck J, Murdiyarso D, Friess DA, Corkalo M, Vukovic T, Vanderklift MA, Farooq SH, Gaitan-Espitia JD, Prathep A. Blue carbon assessments of seagrass and mangrove ecosystems in South and Southeast Asia: Current progress and knowledge gaps. Sci Total Environ 2023; 904:166618. [PMID: 37643707 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Coastal blue carbon ecosystems can be an important nature-based solution for mitigating climate change, when emphasis is given to their protection, management, and restoration. Globally, there has been a rapid increase in blue carbon research in the last few decades, with substantial investments on national scales by the European Union, the USA, Australia, Seychelles, and Belize. Blue carbon ecosystems in South and Southeast Asia are globally diverse, highly productive and could represent a global hotspot for carbon sequestration and storage. To guide future efforts, we conducted a systematic review of the available literature on two primary blue carbon ecosystems-seagrasses and mangroves-across 13 countries in South and Southeast Asia to assess existing national inventories, review current research trends and methodologies, and identify existing knowledge gaps. Information related to various aspects of seagrass and mangrove ecosystems was extracted from 432 research articles from 1967 to 2022. We find that: (1) blue carbon estimates in several countries have limited data, especially for seagrass meadows compared to mangrove ecosystems, although the highest reported carbon stocks were in Indonesia and the Philippines with 4,515 and 707 Tg within mangrove forest and 60.9 and 63.3 Tg within seagrass meadows, respectively; (2) there is a high difference in the quantity and quality of data between mangrove and seagrass ecosystems, and the methodologies used for blue carbon estimates are highly variable across countries; and (3) most studies on blue carbon stocks are spatially biased towards more familiar study areas of individual countries, than several lesser-known suspected blue carbon hotspots. In sum, our review demonstrates the paucity and variability in current research in the region, and highlights research frontiers that should be addressed by future research before the robust implementation of these ecosystems into national climate strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Stankovic
- Excellence Center for Biodiversity of Peninsular Thailand, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Field Marine Station, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand.
| | - Amrit Kumar Mishra
- The SWIRE Institute of Marine Sciences and the School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, S.A.R., China; School of Earth, Ocean and Climate Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Argul, Khurda, Odisha, India.
| | - Yusmiana P Rahayu
- School of Biological Sciences and Oceans Institute, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; Research Center for Conservation of Marine and Inland Water Resources, National Research and Innovation Agency, the Republic of Indonesia, Soekarno Science and Technology Area, Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46, Cibinong, Bogor 16911, Indonesia.
| | - Jonathan Lefcheck
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Cambridge, MD 21613, USA.
| | - Daniel Murdiyarso
- Center for International Forestry Research - World Agroforestry Centre, Jl. CIFOR, Situ Gede, Sindang Barang, Bogor 16115, Indonesia; Department of Geophysics and Meteorology, IPB University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia.
| | - Daniel A Friess
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA.
| | - Marko Corkalo
- Department of Biology, Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Rooseveltov trg 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Teodora Vukovic
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 3, 2100 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Mathew A Vanderklift
- CSIRO Environment, Indian Ocean Marine Research Centre, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
| | - Syed Hilal Farooq
- School of Earth, Ocean and Climate Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Argul, Khurda, Odisha, India.
| | - Juan Diego Gaitan-Espitia
- The SWIRE Institute of Marine Sciences and the School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, S.A.R., China; Institute for Climate and Carbon Neutrality, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
| | - Anchana Prathep
- Excellence Center for Biodiversity of Peninsular Thailand, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Divison of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand.
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Fu C, Li Y, Tu C, Hu J, Zeng L, Qian L, Christie P, Luo Y. Dynamics of trace element enrichment in blue carbon ecosystems in relation to anthropogenic activities. Environ Int 2023; 180:108232. [PMID: 37778288 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Blue carbon ecosystems (BCEs), located at the land-sea interface, provide critical ecological services including the buffering of anthropogenic pollutants. Understanding the interactions between trace element (TE) loads in BCEs and socioeconomic development is imperative to informing management plans to address pollution issues. However, the identification of anthropogenic TE pollution in BCEs remains uncertain due to the complex geochemical and depositional processes and asynchronous socioeconomic development along continental coastlines. Here, priority-controlled TE (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn) concentrations in the mangrove, saltmarsh and seagrass soils and plant tissues along the coastline of China were investigated while taking bare flat and upland soils as corresponding references. We demonstrate that blue carbon (BC) soils accumulated markedly higher concentrations of anthropogenic TEs than the reference soils, mainly due to the effective trapping of fine-grained particles and higher binding capacities. We identify the time course of TE changes over the last 100 years which shows increasing anthropogenic TE accumulation resulting from military activities (1930-1950) and the growth of industrial and agricultural activities (1950-1980), then reaching a maximum after national economic reform (1980-2000). Since the 2000s, decreases in TE discharges driven by socioeconomic reform and strengthened environmental regulations have led to a widespread reversal of anthropogenic TE concentrations in BC soils. Based on the current TE flux we estimate that BCEs can filter over 27.3-100 % of the TEs emitted in industrial wastewaters from Chinese coastal provinces annually. However, the uptake of these TEs by plants can be substantially reduced through various mechanisms offered by edaphic properties such as organic carbon, clay, and sulfur contents. Therefore, enhancing TE filtering while preventing TEs from entering food webs through the conservation and restoration of BCEs will greatly aid in achieving the sustainable development goal of the coastal zone under intensified anthropogenic activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuancheng Fu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China; Marine Science Program, Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia; Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia; Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yuan Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environment Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Chen Tu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China; University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jian Hu
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Salt Marsh Ecosystems and Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources, Jiangsu Geological Bureau, Nanjing 210018, China
| | - Lin Zeng
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Ludong University, Yantai 264025, China
| | - Li Qian
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peter Christie
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Yongming Luo
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environment Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China; University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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Zhou X, Xiao C, Li X, Chen T, Yang X. Microplastics in coastal blue carbon ecosystems: A global Meta-analysis of its distribution, driving mechanisms, and potential risks. Sci Total Environ 2023; 878:163048. [PMID: 36990230 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics, as emerging pollutants, have become a global environmental concern. Blue carbon ecosystems (BCEs) are threatened by microplastics. Although substantial studies have explored the dynamics and threats of microplastics in BCEs, the fate and driving factors of microplastics in BCEs on a global scale remain largely unknown. Here, the occurrence, driving factors, and risks of microplastics in global BCEs were investigated by synthesizing a global meta-analysis. The results showed that the abundance of microplastics in BCEs has notable spatial differences worldwide, with the highest microplastic concentrations in Asia, especially in South and Southeast Asia. Microplastic abundance is influenced by the vegetation habitat, climate, coastal environment, and river runoff. The interaction of geographic location, ecosystem type, coastal environment, and climate enhanced the effects of microplastic distribution. In addition, we found that microplastic accumulation in organisms varied according to feeding habits and body weight. Significant accumulation was observed in large fish; however, growth dilution effects were also observed. The effect of microplastics on the organic carbon content of sediments from BCEs varies by ecosystem; microplastic concentrations do not necessarily increase organic carbon sequestration. Global BCEs are at a high risk of microplastic pollution, with high microplastic abundance and toxicity driving the high pollution risk. Finally, this review provides scientific evidence that will form the basis for future microplastic research, focusing on the transport of microplastics in BCEs; effects on the growth, development, and primary productivity of blue carbon plants; and soil biogeochemical cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100088, China
| | - Cunde Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100088, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xueying Li
- State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100088, China
| | - Tao Chen
- School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Xiaofan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100088, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510006, China.
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Loiola M, Silva AET, Krull M, Barbosa FA, Galvão EH, Patire VF, Cruz ICS, Barros F, Hatje V, Meirelles PM. Mangrove microbial community recovery and their role in early stages of forest recolonization within shrimp ponds. Sci Total Environ 2023; 855:158863. [PMID: 36126709 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Shrimp farming is blooming worldwide, posing a severe threat to mangroves and its multiple goods and ecosystem services. Several studies reported the impacts of aquaculture on mangrove biotic communities, including microbiomes. However, little is known about how mangrove soil microbiomes would change in response to mangrove forest recolonization. Using genome-resolved metagenomics, we compared the soil microbiome of mangrove forests (both with and without the direct influence of shrimp farming effluents) with active shrimp farms and mangroves under a recolonization process. We found that the structure and composition of active shrimp farms microbial communities differ from the control mangrove forests, mangroves under the impact of the shrimp farming effluents, and mangroves under recolonization. Shrimp farming ponds microbiomes have lower microbial diversity and are dominated by halophilic microorganisms, presenting high abundance of multiple antibiotic resistance genes. On the other hand, control mangrove forests, impacted mangroves (exposed to the shrimp farming effluents), and recolonization ponds were more diverse, with a higher abundance of genes related to carbon mobilization. Our data also indicated that the microbiome is recovering in the mangrove recolonization ponds, performing vital metabolic functions and functionally resembling microbiomes found in those soils of neighboring control mangrove forests. Despite highlighting the damage caused by the habitat changes in mangrove soil microbiome community and functioning, our study sheds light on these systems incredible recovery capacity. Our study shows the importance of natural mangrove forest recovery, enhancing ecosystem services by the soil microbial communities even in a very early development stage of mangrove forest, thus encouraging mangrove conservation and restoration efforts worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Loiola
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
| | | | - Marcos Krull
- Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Germany
| | | | | | - Vinicius F Patire
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Energia e Ambiente (CIENAM), Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brazil
| | | | - Francisco Barros
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brazil; Instituto Nacional de Estudos Interdisciplinares e Transdisciplinares em Ecologia e Evolução (IN-TREE), Brazil
| | - Vanessa Hatje
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Energia e Ambiente (CIENAM), Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brazil; Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brazil
| | - Pedro Milet Meirelles
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brazil; Instituto Nacional de Estudos Interdisciplinares e Transdisciplinares em Ecologia e Evolução (IN-TREE), Brazil.
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Meera SP, Bhattacharyya M, Nizam A, Kumar A. A review on microplastic pollution in the mangrove wetlands and microbial strategies for its remediation. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2022; 29:4865-4879. [PMID: 34791631 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-17451-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems in the world harboring huge biological diversity. The prime ecological roles of mangroves are prevention of coastal erosion and shoreline protection. Mangroves face varying degrees of threats due to overexploitation, conversion of mangrove habitats for agriculture, settlement and industrial purposes, illegal encroachment, global warming, sea-level rise, El Nino, and pollution. Among them, microplastic (MP) pollution is a major concern threatening not only the mangroves per se but also the rich biodiversity that it shelters. In general, the microbial communities which are paramount to nutrient recycling and ecological dynamics undergo substantial changes upon MP exposure. If the MP pollution in the mangrove habitats continues unabated in the coming decades, there may be serious consequences on the already threatened mangrove ecosystems and the coastal communities. This review article attempts to consolidate MP pollution of mangrove wetlands, its impact on mangroves and associated microbiota, and the microbial solution for its remediation as a sustainable strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suraj Prasannakumari Meera
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Dr. Janaki Ammal Campus, Kannur University, Palayad, 670661, Kerala, India
| | - Malini Bhattacharyya
- Department of Plant Science, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, 671316, Kerala, India
| | - Ashifa Nizam
- Department of Plant Science, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, 671316, Kerala, India
| | - Ajay Kumar
- Department of Plant Science, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, 671316, Kerala, India.
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Santos-Andrade M, Hatje V, Arias-Ortiz A, Patire VF, da Silva LA. Human disturbance drives loss of soil organic matter and changes its stability and sources in mangroves. Environ Res 2021; 202:111663. [PMID: 34256076 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Mangrove soils with high organic carbon (Corg) content are likely to contain Corg that is vulnerable to remineralization during land use changes. Mangrove conversion to different land uses might deplete soil Corg stocks causing variable carbon dioxide emissions, but the extent of these emissions and the fraction of soil Corg (i.e., labile or stable/recalcitrant) that is mostly lost is poorly understood. Here, we study mangrove soil Corg degradability and its susceptibility to mineralization after mangrove disturbance. We measured changes in soil properties, organic matter (OM) stability and Corg pools and sources across a mangrove disturbance gradient (i.e., pristine forests, degraded mangroves receiving domestic sewage and shrimp farm effluents, and shrimp ponds). Results showed that the conversion of mangroves to shrimp ponds caused the most severe changes in soil properties, OM and Corg characteristics. Shrimp pond soils contained the lowest OM-Corg pools, consisted mostly of stable OM (i.e., recalcitrant and refractory; 36.0 ± 5.7% of the total OM) and enriched δ13Corg (-22.6 ± 2.7‰). Conversely, control mangrove soils had the largest OM-Corg pools consisting of a large unstable OM fraction (i.e., labile; 46.4 ± 4.2%) and lighter δ13Corg (-26.8 ± 0.4‰) being characteristic of Corg from a mangrove origin. Conversion of mangroves to shrimp ponds and its degradation by shrimp farm and domestic sewage effluents caused a loss of 97%, 61%, and 35% of soil Corg stocks in the upper meter, representing potential emissions of ~1200, 800, and 400 Mg CO2 ha-1, respectively. These losses were explained by enhanced OM mineralization of unstable fractions driven by the loss of the physico-chemical protection provided by fine-grained soils and vegetation cover. The differences in Corg stability among sites can be used to predict potential carbon dioxide produced during mineralization, hence aid at prioritizing areas for conservation, restoration or management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio Santos-Andrade
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Energia e Ambiente, CIENAM, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Ondina, Salvador, Bahia, 40170-115, Brazil.
| | - Vanessa Hatje
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Energia e Ambiente, CIENAM, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Ondina, Salvador, Bahia, 40170-115, Brazil; Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Ondina, Salvador, Bahia, 40170-115, Brazil
| | - Ariane Arias-Ortiz
- Ecosystem Science Division, Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA; Institute of Marine Science, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Vinicius F Patire
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Energia e Ambiente, CIENAM, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Ondina, Salvador, Bahia, 40170-115, Brazil
| | - Luciana A da Silva
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Ondina, Salvador, Bahia, 40170-115, Brazil
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Cuellar-Martinez T, Ruiz-Fernández AC, Sanchez-Cabeza JA, Pérez-Bernal LH, Sandoval-Gil J. Relevance of carbon burial and storage in two contrasting blue carbon ecosystems of a north-east Pacific coastal lagoon. Sci Total Environ 2019; 675:581-593. [PMID: 31030163 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Coastal vegetated ecosystems constitute very productive habitats, characterized by efficient Corg sequestration and long-term preservation in sediments, so they play an important role in climate change mitigation. The temporal evolution of Corg content, stocks and burial rates were evaluated in seagrass and salt marsh habitats in San Quintin Bay (northeast Pacific, Mexico) by using 210Pb-dated sediment cores. Salt marsh cores were characterized by fine-grained sediments, higher salinities, lower terrigenous input and lower mass accumulation rates (MAR: 0.01-0.03 g cm-2 yr-1) than seagrass cores (MAR: 0.02-3.21 g cm-2 yr-1). Accumulation rates in both habitats steadily increased throughout the past century most likely because of soil erosion promoted by land use changes in the surroundings. The Corg stocks were highest in salt marsh cores (12.2-53.6 Mg ha-1 at 10 cm depth; 259-320 Mg ha-1 at 1 m depth) than in seagrass cores (5.7-14.4 Mg ha-1, and 80-98, Mg ha-1, respectively), whereas Corg burial rates were considerably lower in salt marsh (13-60 g m-2 yr-1) than in seagrass (9-144 g m-2 yr-1) habitats, and the temporal variations observed in Corg burial rates were mostly driven by changes in the accumulation rates. The overall Corg stock (485 ± 51 Gg C) for both habitats together was comparable to the carbon emissions of a major city nearby. Our results highlight the need to protect these environments as relevant carbon reservoirs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasa Cuellar-Martinez
- Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 82040 Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - Ana Carolina Ruiz-Fernández
- Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 82040 Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico.
| | - Joan-Albert Sanchez-Cabeza
- Unidad Académica Procesos Oceánicos y Costeros, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Libia-Hascibe Pérez-Bernal
- Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 82040 Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - Jose Sandoval-Gil
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Carretera Transpeninsular Ensenada-Tijuana No. 3917, Frac. Playitas, 22860 Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
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