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Guidotti G, Duelen R, Bloise N, Soccio M, Gazzano M, Aluigi A, Visai L, Sampaolesi M, Lotti N. The ad hoc chemical design of random PBS-based copolymers influences the activation of cardiac differentiation while altering the HYPPO pathway target genes in hiPSCs. Biomater Adv 2023; 154:213583. [PMID: 37604040 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Revised: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Cardiac tissue engineering is a cutting-edge technology aiming to replace irreversibly damaged cardiac tissue and restore contractile functionality. However, cardiac tissue engineering porous and perfusable scaffolds to enable oxygen supply in vitro and eventually promote angiogenesis in vivo are still desirable. Two fully-aliphatic random copolymers of poly(butylene succinate) (PBS), poly(butylene succinate/Pripol), P(BSBPripol), and poly(butylene/neopentyl glycol succinate), P(BSNS), containing two different subunits, neopentyl glycol and Pripol 1009, were successfully synthesized and then electrospun in tridimentional fibrous mats. The copolymers show different thermal and mechanical behaviours as result of their chemical structure. In particular, copolymerization led to a reduction in crystallinity and consequently PBS stiffness, reaching values of elastic modulus very close to those of soft tissues. Then, to check the biological suitability, human induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (hiPSCs) were directly seeded on both PBS-based copolymeric scaffolds. The results confirmed the ability of both the scaffolds to sustain cell viability and to maintain their stemness during cell expansion. Furthermore, gene expression and immunofluorescence analysis showed that P(BSBPripol) scaffold promoted an upregulation of the early cardiac progenitor and later-stage markers with a simultaneously upregulation of HYPPO pathway gene expression, crucial for mechanosensing of cardiac progenitor cells. These results suggest that the correct ad-hoc chemical design and, in turn, the mechanical properties of the matrix, such as substrate stiffness, together with surface porosity, play a critical role in regulating the behaviour of cardiac progenitors, which ultimately offers valuable insights into the development of novel bio-inspired scaffolds for cardiac tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Guidotti
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, Via Terracini 28, 40131 Bologna, Italy
| | - Robin Duelen
- Translational Cardiomyology Laboratory, Stem Cell Biology and Embryology, Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nora Bloise
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Centre for Health Technologies (CHT), INSTM UdR of Pavia, University of Pavia, Viale Taramelli 3/B, 27100 Pavia, Italy; Medicina Clinica-Specialistica, UOR5 Laboratorio di Nanotecnologie, ICS Maugeri, IRCCS, Via Salvatore Maugeri 4, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Michelina Soccio
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, Via Terracini 28, 40131 Bologna, Italy
| | - Massimo Gazzano
- Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity Institute, CNR, Via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Annalisa Aluigi
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza del Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, (PU), Italy
| | - Livia Visai
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Centre for Health Technologies (CHT), INSTM UdR of Pavia, University of Pavia, Viale Taramelli 3/B, 27100 Pavia, Italy; Medicina Clinica-Specialistica, UOR5 Laboratorio di Nanotecnologie, ICS Maugeri, IRCCS, Via Salvatore Maugeri 4, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Maurilio Sampaolesi
- Translational Cardiomyology Laboratory, Stem Cell Biology and Embryology, Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Histology and Medical Embryology Unit, Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Nadia Lotti
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, Via Terracini 28, 40131 Bologna, Italy.
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Mohapatra SR, Rama E, Melcher C, Call T, Al Enezy-Ulbrich MA, Pich A, Apel C, Kiessling F, Jockenhoevel S. From In Vitro to Perioperative Vascular Tissue Engineering: Shortening Production Time by Traceable Textile-Reinforcement. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2022; 19:1169-1184. [PMID: 36201158 PMCID: PMC9679079 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-022-00482-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The production of tissue-engineered vascular graft (TEVG) usually involves a prolonged bioreactor cultivation period of up to several weeks to achieve maturation of extracellular matrix and sufficient mechanical strength. Therefore, we aimed to substantially shorten this conditioning time by combining a TEVG textile scaffold with a recently developed copolymer reinforced fibrin gel as a cell carrier. We further implemented our grafts with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents to allow the in-vitro monitoring of the TEVG’s remodeling process. Methods: Biodegradable polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) was electrospun onto a non-degradable polyvinylidene fluoride scaffold and molded along with copolymer-reinforced fibrin hydrogel and human arterial cells. Mechanical tests on the TEVGs were performed both instantly after molding and 4 days of bioreactor conditioning. The non-invasive in vitro monitoring of the PLGA degradation and the novel imaging of fluorinated thermoplastic polyurethane (19F-TPU) were performed using 7T MRI. Results: After 4 days of close loop bioreactor conditioning, 617 ± 85 mmHg of burst pressure was achieved, and advanced maturation of extracellular matrix (ECM) was observed by immunohistology, especially in regards to collagen and smooth muscle actin. The suture retention strength (2.24 ± 0.3 N) and axial tensile strength (2.45 ± 0.58 MPa) of the TEVGs achieved higher values than the native arteries used as control. The contrast agents labeling of the TEVGs allowed the monitorability of the PLGA degradation and enabled the visibility of the non-degradable textile component. Conclusion: Here, we present a concept for a novel textile-reinforced TEVG, which is successfully produced in 4 days of bioreactor conditioning, characterized by increased ECM maturation and sufficient mechanical strength. Additionally, the combination of our approach with non-invasive imaging provides further insights into TEVG’s clinical application. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13770-022-00482-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saurav Ranjan Mohapatra
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), Center for Biohybrid Medical Systems (CBMS), Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 55, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Elena Rama
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 55, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Christoph Melcher
- Institute for Textile Technology, RWTH Aachen University, Otto-Blumenthal-Str. 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Tobias Call
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), Center for Biohybrid Medical Systems (CBMS), Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 55, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Andrij Pich
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Christian Apel
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), Center for Biohybrid Medical Systems (CBMS), Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 55, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Fabian Kiessling
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 55, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Stefan Jockenhoevel
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), Center for Biohybrid Medical Systems (CBMS), Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 55, 52074, Aachen, Germany.
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Mohammadalipour M, Karbasi S, Behzad T, Mohammadalipour Z, Zamani M. Effect of cellulose nanofibers on polyhydroxybutyrate electrospun scaffold for bone tissue engineering applications. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 220:1402-14. [PMID: 36116594 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.09.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The choice of materials and preparation methods are the most important factors affecting the final characteristics of the scaffolds. In this study, cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) as a nano-additive reinforcer were selected to prepare a polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) based nanocomposite mat. The PHB/CNF (PC) scaffold properties, created via the electrospinning method, were investigated and compared with pure PHB. The obtained results, in addition to a slight increment of crystallinity (from ≃46 to 53 %), showed better water contact angle (from ≃120 to 96°), appropriate degradation rate (up to ≃25 % weight loss in two months), prominent biomineralization (Ca/P ratio about 1.50), and ≃89 % increment in toughness factor of PC compare to the neat PHB. Moreover, the surface roughness as an affecting parameter on cell behavior was also increased up to ≃43 % in the presence of CNFs. Eventually, not only the MTT assay revealed better human osteoblast MG63 cell viability on PC samples, but also DAPI staining and SEM results confirmed the more plausible cell spreading in the presence of cellulose nano-additive. These improvements, along with the appropriate results of ALP and Alizarin red, authenticate that the newly PC nanocomposite composition has the required efficiency in the field of bone tissue engineering.
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Mohammadalipour M, Behzad T, Karbasi S, Mohammadalipour Z. Optimization and characterization of polyhydroxybutyrate/lignin electro-spun scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 218:317-34. [PMID: 35882262 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.07.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The tissue engineering scaffolds requires efficient combination of materials, appropriate method of preparation, and precise characterization of final product. In this study, the optimal electrospinning process conditions of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) were investigated by Taguchi design. Then, the initial PHB solution characteristics in the presence of lignin were optimized and then electro-spun. In this regard, the uniformity of electro-spun nanofibers, observed by SEM, confirmed that 9 w/v % is the optimum concentration of PHB in Trifluoro acetic acid. Addition of 6 wt% of lignin to PHB, could alleviate both the brittleness and hydrophobicity of PHB, as DSC, XRD, and WCA results indicated decrement in crystallinity (from 46 to 39 %), crystal size (from 21.8 to 15.2 nm), and WCA (from 118 to 73°). On the other hand, FESEM results represented diameter reduction from 1318 ± 202.07 to 442 ± 111.04 nm, and transformation of nanofiber physical structure from ribbon-like to cylindrical fiber by adding lignin. In addition, the mechanical properties of PHB including elongation at break, toughness, young modulus, and tensile strength were also improved (up to twice) by adding lignin. Ultimately, reviewing the outputs of degradation, bioactivity, MG63 cell viability, proliferation, mineralization, and antioxidant activity confirm that PHB/lignin electrospun scaffold has potential application in tissue engineering.
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Zhao G, Feng Y, Xue L, Cui M, Zhang Q, Xu F, Peng N, Jiang Z, Gao D, Zhang X. Anisotropic conductive reduced graphene oxide/silk matrices promote post-infarction myocardial function by restoring electrical integrity. Acta Biomater 2022; 139:190-203. [PMID: 33836222 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.03.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Myocardial infarction (MI) remains the leading cause of death globally, often leading to impaired cardiac function and pathological myocardial microenvironment. Electrical conduction abnormalities of the infarcted myocardium not only induce adverse myocardial remodeling but also prevent tissue repair. Restoring the myocardial electrical integrity, particularly the anisotropic electrical signal propagation within the injured area after infarction is crucial for an effective function recovery. Herein, optimized reduced graphene oxide (rGO) functionalized electrospun silk fibroin (rGO/silk) biomaterials presenting anisotropic conductivity and enhanced suturablity were developed and investigated as cardiac patches for their potential in improving the post-MI myocardial function of rat models. The results show that the anisotropic conductive rGO/silk patches exhibit remarkable therapeutic effect on repairing the infarcted myocardium compared to the nonconductive silk and isotropic conductive rGO/silk patches as determined by the enhanced pumping function, reduced susceptibility to arrhythmias, thickened left ventricular walls and improved survival of functional cardiomyocytes. Their notable effect on promoting the angiogenesis of capillaries in the infarcted myocardium has also been demonstrated. This study highlights an effective and biomimetic reconstruction of the electrical myocardial microenvironment based on the anisotropic conductive rGO/silk biomaterials as a promising option for promoting the repair of infarcted myocardium. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The dysfunctional electrical microenvironment in the infarcted myocardium not only aggravates the adverse myocardial remodeling but also limits the effect of cardiac regenerative medicine. Although various conductive biomaterials have been employed to restore the electrical network in the infarcted myocardium in vivo, the anisotropic nature of the myocardial electrical microenvironment which enables directional electrical signal propagation were neglected. In this study, an anisotropic conductive rGO/silk biomaterial system is developed to improve the myocardial function post infarction by restoring the anisotropic electrical microenvironment in the infarcted myocardium. The promoted effects of anisotropic conductive grafts on repairing infarcted hearts are demonstrated with improved pumping function, cardiomyocyte survival, resistance to ventricular fibrillation, and angiogenesis of capillary network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoxu Zhao
- The Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Center for Mitochondrial Biology and Medicine, School of Life Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory for Micro/Nano Manufacturing and Measurement Technology, Xi'an Key Laboratory for Biomedical Testing and High-end Equipment, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shannxi, PR China; School of Material Science and Chemical Engineering, Xi'an Technological University, Xi'an 710021, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Yanjing Feng
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medical, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Li Xue
- The Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Center for Mitochondrial Biology and Medicine, School of Life Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory for Micro/Nano Manufacturing and Measurement Technology, Xi'an Key Laboratory for Biomedical Testing and High-end Equipment, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shannxi, PR China
| | - Mengjie Cui
- The Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Center for Mitochondrial Biology and Medicine, School of Life Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory for Micro/Nano Manufacturing and Measurement Technology, Xi'an Key Laboratory for Biomedical Testing and High-end Equipment, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shannxi, PR China
| | - Qi Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Center for Mitochondrial Biology and Medicine, School of Life Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory for Micro/Nano Manufacturing and Measurement Technology, Xi'an Key Laboratory for Biomedical Testing and High-end Equipment, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shannxi, PR China
| | - Feng Xu
- The Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Niancai Peng
- International Joint Laboratory for Micro/Nano Manufacturing and Measurement Technology, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi'an Key Laboratory for Biomedical Testing and High-end Equipment, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Zhuangde Jiang
- International Joint Laboratory for Micro/Nano Manufacturing and Measurement Technology, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi'an Key Laboratory for Biomedical Testing and High-end Equipment, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Dengfeng Gao
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medical, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, Shaanxi, PR China.
| | - Xiaohui Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Center for Mitochondrial Biology and Medicine, School of Life Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory for Micro/Nano Manufacturing and Measurement Technology, Xi'an Key Laboratory for Biomedical Testing and High-end Equipment, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shannxi, PR China.
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Dai T, Ma J, Ni S, Liu C, Wang Y, Wu S, Liu J, Weng Y, Zhou D, Jimenez-Franco A, Zhao H, Zhao X. Attapulgite-doped electrospun PCL scaffolds for enhanced bone regeneration in rat cranium defects. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl 2022; 133:112656. [PMID: 35034813 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2022.112656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Electrospun PCL scaffolds have been widely used for tissue engineering as they have shown great potential to mimic the structure of the natural extracellular matrix (ECM). However, the small pore size and low bioactivity of the scaffolds limit cell migration and tissue formation. In this study, PCL (polycaprolactone), PCL/PEG (polyethylene glycol), and PCL/PEG/ATP (nano-attapulgite) scaffolds were fabricated via electrospinning. To increase the porosity of the scaffolds, they were washed to remove water-soluble PEG fibers. Then the porous structure was measured using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), which showed an increased porosity when PEG fibers were removed in PCL/PEG and PCL/PEG/ATP scaffolds. Moreover, the mechanical properties were also analyzed in dry and wet conditions. In vitro mouse multipotent mesenchymal precursor cells were used to assess the biocompatibility of the scaffolds, and osteogenesis was analyzed using CCK-8 and real-time PCR (RT-PCR) methods. Moreover, in vivo μCT, histological and immunohistochemical analyses were conducted to evaluate new bone formation in rat cranium defect models. Washed PCL/PEG/ATP scaffolds were implanted into the cranium defects in rats for 4 or 8 weeks, better cell infiltration was observed in these scaffolds than in unwashed ones. The result demonstrated that washed PCL/PEG/ATP scaffold facilitated the differentiation of MSCs into osteoblasts compared with PCL scaffold, as proved by the increased expression of osteogenic key genes as well as Smad1, Smad4, and Smad5. Furthermore, in vivo studies demonstrated that using the ATP-doped electrospun PCL scaffold can improve the bone regeneration of rat cranium defects. Particularly, the PCL/ATP-30% scaffold has the best effect compared to the other scaffolds. The enhanced osteogenesis and bone repair were related to the PCL/ATP activated BMP/Smad signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Dai
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Jiayi Ma
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Su Ni
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Chun Liu
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Siyu Wu
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Jun Liu
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Yiping Weng
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Dong Zhou
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Ana Jimenez-Franco
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Hongbin Zhao
- Medical Research Centre, Changzhou Second People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou 213164, China.
| | - Xiubo Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China; Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK.
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Abstract
Tissue-engineered scaffolds have been identified as appropriate templates for bone regeneration, especially complex geometries seen in craniofacial defects. Here we describe the general fabrication and modification of hydrogels, cryogels, and electrospun scaffolds. These scaffolds offer a variety of templates for facilitating bone growth and regeneration in craniofacial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine R Hixon
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA.
| | | | - Meghana Pendyala
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | | | - Scott A Sell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Rabionet M, Polonio-Alcalá E, Relat J, Yeste M, Sims-Mourtada J, Kloxin AM, Planas M, Feliu L, Ciurana J, Puig T. Fatty acid synthase as a feasible biomarker for triple negative breast cancer stem cell subpopulation cultured on electrospun scaffolds. Mater Today Bio 2021; 12:100155. [PMID: 34841239 PMCID: PMC8606546 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2021.100155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
There is no targeted therapy for triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), which presents an aggressive profile and poor prognosis. Recent studies noticed the feasibility of breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs), a small population responsible for tumor initiation and relapse, to become a novel target for TNBC treatments. However, new cell culture supports need to be standardized since traditional two-dimensional (2D) surfaces do not maintain the stemness state of cells. Hence, three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds represent an alternative to study in vitro cell behavior without inducing cell differentiation. In this work, electrospun polycaprolactone scaffolds were used to enrich BCSC subpopulation of MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 TNBC cells, confirmed by the upregulation of several stemness markers and the existence of an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition within 3D culture. Moreover, 3D-cultured cells displayed a shift from MAPK to PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathways, accompanied by an enhanced EGFR and HER2 activation, especially at early cell culture times. Lastly, the fatty acid synthase (FASN), a lipogenic enzyme overexpressed in several carcinomas, was found to be hyperactivated in stemness-enriched samples. Its pharmacological inhibition led to stemness diminishment, overcoming the BCSC expansion achieved in 3D culture. Therefore, FASN may represent a novel target for BCSC niche in TNBC samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Rabionet
- New Therapeutic Targets Laboratory (TargetsLab) - Oncology Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Girona, Emili Grahit 77, 17003, Girona, Spain
- Product, Process and Production Engineering Research Group (GREP), Department of Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Construction, University of Girona, Maria Aurèlia Capmany 61, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - Emma Polonio-Alcalá
- New Therapeutic Targets Laboratory (TargetsLab) - Oncology Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Girona, Emili Grahit 77, 17003, Girona, Spain
- Product, Process and Production Engineering Research Group (GREP), Department of Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Construction, University of Girona, Maria Aurèlia Capmany 61, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - Joana Relat
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Gastronomy, School of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Food and Nutrition Torribera Campus, University of Barcelona, Prat de la Riba 171, 08921, Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety of the University of Barcelona (INSA-UB), E-08921 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain
- CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBER-OBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Marc Yeste
- Biotechnology of Animal and Human Reproduction (TechnoSperm), Department of Biology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Technology, University of Girona, Pic de Peguera 15, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - Jennifer Sims-Mourtada
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, Helen F Graham Cancer Center and Research Institute, Christiana Care Health Services, Inc, Newark, DE, USA
| | - April M. Kloxin
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 19716, USA
| | - Marta Planas
- LIPPSO, Department of Chemistry, University of Girona, Maria Aurèlia Capmany 69, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - Lidia Feliu
- LIPPSO, Department of Chemistry, University of Girona, Maria Aurèlia Capmany 69, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - Joaquim Ciurana
- Product, Process and Production Engineering Research Group (GREP), Department of Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Construction, University of Girona, Maria Aurèlia Capmany 61, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - Teresa Puig
- New Therapeutic Targets Laboratory (TargetsLab) - Oncology Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Girona, Emili Grahit 77, 17003, Girona, Spain
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Pensa NW, Curry AS, Bonvallet PP, Bellis NF, Rettig KM, Reddy MS, Eberhardt AW, Bellis SL. 3D printed mesh reinforcements enhance the mechanical properties of electrospun scaffolds. Biomater Res 2019; 23:22. [PMID: 31798944 PMCID: PMC6884787 DOI: 10.1186/s40824-019-0171-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background There is substantial interest in electrospun scaffolds as substrates for tissue regeneration and repair due to their fibrous, extracellular matrix-like composition with interconnected porosity, cost-effective production, and scalability. However, a common limitation of these scaffolds is their inherently low mechanical strength and stiffness, restricting their use in some clinical applications. In this study we developed a novel technique for 3D printing a mesh reinforcement on electrospun scaffolds to improve their mechanical properties. Methods A poly (lactic acid) (PLA) mesh was 3D-printed directly onto electrospun scaffolds composed of a 40:60 ratio of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) to gelatin, respectively. PLA grids were printed onto the electrospun scaffolds with either a 6 mm or 8 mm distance between the struts. Scanning electron microscopy was utilized to determine if the 3D printing process affected the archtitecture of the electrospun scaffold. Tensile testing was used to ascertain mechanical properties (strength, modulus, failure stress, ductility) of both unmodified and reinforced electrospun scaffolds. An in vivo bone graft model was used to assess biocompatibility. Specifically, reinforced scaffolds were used as a membrane cover for bone graft particles implanted into rat calvarial defects, and implant sites were examined histologically. Results We determined that the tensile strength and elastic modulus were markedly increased, and ductility reduced, by the addition of the PLA meshes to the electrospun scaffolds. Furthermore, the scaffolds maintained their matrix-like structure after being reinforced with the 3D printed PLA. There was no indication at the graft/tissue interface that the reinforced electrospun scaffolds elicited an immune or foreign body response upon implantation into rat cranial defects. Conclusion 3D-printed mesh reinforcements offer a new tool for enhancing the mechanical strength of electrospun scaffolds while preserving the advantageous extracellular matrix-like architecture. The modification of electrospun scaffolds with 3D-printed reinforcements is expected to expand the range of clinical applications for which electrospun materials may be suitable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W Pensa
- 1Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
| | - Andrew S Curry
- 1Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
| | - Paul P Bonvallet
- 2Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
| | - Nathan F Bellis
- 2Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
| | - Kayla M Rettig
- 1Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
| | - Michael S Reddy
- 3School of Dentistry, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, USA
| | - Alan W Eberhardt
- 1Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
| | - Susan L Bellis
- 2Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
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10
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Barati G, Rahmani A, Nadri S. In vitro differentiation of conjunctiva mesenchymal stem cells into insulin producing cells on natural and synthetic electrospun scaffolds. Biologicals 2019; 62:33-38. [PMID: 31635936 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2019.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymers are used in tissue engineering as a scaffold. In this study the differentiation capability of conjunctiva mesenchymal stem cells (CJMSCs) on natural and synthetic nanofibrous electrospun scaffolds into insulin producing cells (IPCs) were studied. Natural Silk fibroin and synthetic PLLA polymers were used to fabricate electrospun scaffolds. These scaffolds are characterized by SEM and CJMSCs were differentiated into IPCs on these scaffolds. The differentiation efficiency was measured by analysis the expression of specific pancreatic markers by RT-qPCR and insulin release capacity via ELISA. Microscopy analysis showed the fabrication of uniform nanofibers and the formation of the islet-like clusters at the end of differentiation period. Significant differences in expression of Pdx-1 and glucagon were observed in PLLA scaffold compared to Silk scaffold (Fold: 1.625 and 1.434, respectively; P-value ≤ 0.0001 for both). Furthermore, insulin secretion at high glucose concentration was significantly higher in cells differentiated on PLLA scaffold than those cultured on Silk scaffold (P-value: 0.012). The scaffolds can enhance the differentiation of IPCs from CJMSCs. In this way, PLLA synthetic scaffold was more efficient than Silk natural scaffold. We conclude that the nanofibrous scaffolds reported herein could be used as a potential supportive matrix for islet tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghasem Barati
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Ali Rahmani
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Samad Nadri
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran; Zanjan Metabolic Diseases Research Center, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran; Zanjan Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology Research Center, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.
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11
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Paim Á, Tessaro IC, Cardozo NSM, Pranke P. Mesenchymal stem cell cultivation in electrospun scaffolds: mechanistic modeling for tissue engineering. J Biol Phys 2018; 44:245-271. [PMID: 29508186 PMCID: PMC6082795 DOI: 10.1007/s10867-018-9482-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue engineering is a multidisciplinary field of research in which the cells, biomaterials, and processes can be optimized to develop a tissue substitute. Three-dimensional (3D) architectural features from electrospun scaffolds, such as porosity, tortuosity, fiber diameter, pore size, and interconnectivity have a great impact on cell behavior. Regarding tissue development in vitro, culture conditions such as pH, osmolality, temperature, nutrient, and metabolite concentrations dictate cell viability inside the constructs. The effect of different electrospun scaffold properties, bioreactor designs, mesenchymal stem cell culture parameters, and seeding techniques on cell behavior can be studied individually or combined with phenomenological modeling techniques. This work reviews the main culture and scaffold factors that affect tissue development in vitro regarding the culture of cells inside 3D matrices. The mathematical modeling of the relationship between these factors and cell behavior inside 3D constructs has also been critically reviewed, focusing on mesenchymal stem cell culture in electrospun scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ágata Paim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), R. Eng. Luis Englert, s/n, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, 90040-040, Brazil.
| | - Isabel C Tessaro
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), R. Eng. Luis Englert, s/n, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, 90040-040, Brazil
| | - Nilo S M Cardozo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), R. Eng. Luis Englert, s/n, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, 90040-040, Brazil
| | - Patricia Pranke
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, 90610-000, Brazil
- Stem Cell Research Institute, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, 90020-010, Brazil
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12
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Aldana AA, Abraham GA. Current advances in electrospun gelatin-based scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Int J Pharm 2016; 523:441-453. [PMID: 27640245 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.09.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The development of biomimetic highly-porous scaffolds is essential for successful tissue engineering. Electrospun nanofibers are highly versatile platforms for a broad range of applications in different research areas. In the biomedical field, micro/nanoscale fibrous structures have gained great interest for wound dressings, drug delivery systems, soft and hard-tissue engineering scaffolds, enzyme immobilization, among other healthcare applications. In this mini-review, electrospun gelatin-based scaffolds for a variety of tissue engineering applications, such as bone, cartilage, skin, nerve, and ocular and vascular tissue engineering, are reviewed and discussed. Gelatin blends with natural or synthetic polymers exhibit physicochemical, biomechanical, and biocompatibility properties very attractive for scaffolding. Current advances and challenges on this research field are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana A Aldana
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencia y Tecnología de Materiales, INTEMA (UNMdP-CONICET), Av. Juan B. Justo 4302, B7608FDQ Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Gustavo A Abraham
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencia y Tecnología de Materiales, INTEMA (UNMdP-CONICET), Av. Juan B. Justo 4302, B7608FDQ Mar del Plata, Argentina.
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13
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Yaghoobi M, Hashemi-Najafabadi S, Soleimani M, Vasheghani-Farahani E, Mousavi SM. Osteogenic Differentiation and Mineralization on Compact Multilayer nHA-PCL Electrospun Scaffolds in a Perfusion Bioreactor. Iran J Biotechnol 2016; 14:41-49. [PMID: 28959325 DOI: 10.15171/ijb.1382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Monolayer electrospun scaffolds have already been used in bone tissue engineering due to their high surface-tovolume ratio, interconnectivity, similarity to natural bone extracellular matrix (ECM), and simple production. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to evaluate the dynamic culture effect on osteogenic differentiation and mineralizationi into a compact cellular multilayer nHA-PCL electrospun construct. The dynamic culture was compared with static culture. MATERIALS AND METHODS The calcium content, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and cell viability were investigated on days 3 and 7. RESULTS When the dynamic culture compared to static culture, the mineralization and ALP activity were increased in dynamic culture. After 7 days, calcium contents were 41.24 and 20.44 μg.(cm3)-1, and also normalized ALP activity were 0.32 and 0.19 U.mg-1 in dynamic and static culture, respectively. Despite decreasing the cell viability until day 7, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results showed that, due to higher mineralization, a larger area of the construct was covered with calcium deposition in dynamic culture. CONCLUSIONS The dynamic flow could improve ALP activity and mineralization into the compact cellular multilayer construct cultured in the perfusion bioreactor after 7 days. Fluid flow of media helped to facilitate the nutrients transportation into the construct and created uniform cellular construct with high mineralization. This construct can be applied for bone tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maliheh Yaghoobi
- Biomedical Engineering Group, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Masoud Soleimani
- Hematology Group, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Seyyed Mohammad Mousavi
- Biotechnology Group, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
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14
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Zhu C, Li J, Liu C, Zhou P, Yang H, Li B. Modulation of the gene expression of annulus fibrosus-derived stem cells using poly(ether carbonate urethane)urea scaffolds of tunable elasticity. Acta Biomater 2016; 29:228-238. [PMID: 26432437 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2015.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2015] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Annulus fibrosus (AF) injuries commonly lead to substantial deterioration of the intervertebral disc (IVD). While tissue engineering has recently evolved into a promising approach for AF regeneration, it remains challenging due to the cellular, biochemical, and mechanical heterogeneity of AF tissue. In this study, we explored the use of AF-derived stem cells (AFSCs) to achieve diversified differentiation of cells for AF tissue engineering. Since the differentiation of stem cells relies significantly on the elasticity of the substrate, we synthesized a series of biodegradable poly(ether carbonate urethane)urea (PECUU) materials whose elasticity approximated that of native AF tissue. When AFSCs were cultured on electrospun PECUU fibrous scaffolds, the gene expression of collagen-I in the cells increased with the elasticity of scaffold material, whereas the expression of collagen-II and aggrecan genes showed an opposite trend. At the protein level, the content of collagen-I gradually increased with substrate elasticity, while collagen-II and GAG contents decreased. In addition, the cell traction forces (CTFs) of AFSCs gradually decreased with scaffold elasticity. Such substrate elasticity-dependent changes of AFSCs were similar to the gradual transition in the genetic, biochemical, and biomechanical characteristics of cells from inner to outer regions of native AF tissue. Together, findings from this study indicate that AFSCs, depending on the substrate elasticity, have strong tendencies to differentiate into various types of AF-like cells, thereby providing a solid foundation for the tissue engineering applications of AFSCs. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Repairing the annulus fibrosus (AF) of intervertebral disc (IVD) is critical for the treatment of disc degeneration disease, but remains challenging due to the significant heterogeneity of AF tissue. Previously, we have identified rabbit AF-derived stem cells (AFSCs), which are AF tissue-specific and hold promise for AF regeneration. In this study, we synthesized a series of poly(ether carbonate urethane)ureas of various elasticity (or stiffness) and explored the potential of induced differentiation of AFSCs using electrospun PECUU scaffolds. This work has, for the first time, found that AFSCs are able to present different gene expression patterns simply as a result of the elasticity of scaffold material. Therefore, our findings will help supplement current knowledge of AF tissue regeneration and may benefit a diversified readership from scientific, engineering, and clinical settings whose work involves the biology and tissue engineering of IVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caihong Zhu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Orthopaedic Institute, Soochow University, 188 Shizi St, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, China
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Orthopaedic Institute, Soochow University, 188 Shizi St, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, China
| | - Chen Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Orthopaedic Institute, Soochow University, 188 Shizi St, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, China
| | - Pinghui Zhou
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Orthopaedic Institute, Soochow University, 188 Shizi St, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, China
| | - Huilin Yang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Orthopaedic Institute, Soochow University, 188 Shizi St, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, China.
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Orthopaedic Institute, Soochow University, 188 Shizi St, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, China.
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Cherry JF, Bennett NK, Schachner M, Moghe PV. Engineered N-cadherin and L1 biomimetic substrates concertedly promote neuronal differentiation, neurite extension and neuroprotection of human neural stem cells. Acta Biomater 2014; 10:4113-26. [PMID: 24914828 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2014.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Revised: 04/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the design of neurotrophic biomaterial constructs for human neural stem cells, guided by neural developmental cues of N-cadherin and L1 adhesion molecules. Polymer substrates fabricated either as two-dimensional (2-D) films or three-dimensional (3-D) microfibrous scaffolds were functionalized with fusion chimeras of N-cadherin-Fc alone and in combination with L1-Fc, and the effects on differentiation, neurite extension and survival of H9 human-embryonic-stem-cell-derived neural stem cells (H9-NSCs) were quantified. Combinations of N-cadherin and L1-Fc co-operatively enhanced neuronal differentiation profiles, indicating the critical nature of the two complementary developmental cues. Notably, substrates presenting low levels of N-cadherin-Fc concentrations, combined with proportionately higher L1-Fc concentration, most enhanced neurite outgrowth and the degree of MAP2+ and neurofilament-M+ H9-NSCs. Low N-cadherin-Fc alone promoted improved cell survival following oxidative stress, compared to higher concentrations of N-cadherin-Fc alone or combinations with L1-Fc. Pharmacological and antibody blockage studies revealed that substrates presenting low levels of N-cadherin are functionally competent so long as they elicit a threshold signal mediated by homophilic N-cadherin and fibroblast growth factor signaling. Overall, these studies highlight the ability of optimal combinations of N-cadherin and L1 to recapitulate a "neurotrophic" microenvironment that enhances human neural stem cell differentiation and neurite outgrowth. Additionally, 3-D fibrous scaffolds presenting low N-cadherin-Fc further enhanced the survival of H9-NSCs compared to equivalent 2-D films. This indicates that similar biofunctionalization approaches based on N-cadherin and L1 can be translated to 3-D "transplantable" scaffolds with enhanced neurotrophic behaviors. Thus, the insights from this study have fundamental and translational impacts for neural-stem-cell-based regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocie F Cherry
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Neal K Bennett
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Melitta Schachner
- W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, 22 Xin Ling Road, Shantou 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Prabhas V Moghe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Rutgers University, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
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