Norovirus and FRNA bacteriophage determined by RT-qPCR and infectious FRNA bacteriophage in wastewater and oysters

Norovirus (NoV), the leading cause of adult non-bacterial gastroenteritis can be commonly detected in wastewater but the extent of NoV removal provided by wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is unclear. We monitored a newly commissioned WWTP with UV disinfection on a weekly basis over a six month period for NoV using RT-qPCR and for FRNA bacteriophage GA using both RT-qPCR (total concentration) and a plaque assay (infectious concentration). Mean concentrations of NoV GI and GII in influent wastewater were reduced by 0.25 and 0.41 log10 genome copies 100 ml(-1), respectively by the WWTP. The mean concentration of total FRNA bacteriophage GA was reduced by 0.35 log genome copies 100 ml(-1) compared to a reduction of infectious FRNA bacteriophage GA of 2.13 log PFU 100 ml(-1). A significant difference between concentrations of infectious and total FRNA bacteriophage GA was observed in treated, but not in untreated wastewaters. We conclude that RT-qPCR in isolation underestimates the reduction of infectious virus during wastewater treatment. We further compared the concentrations of infectious virus in combined sewer overflow (CSO) and UV treated effluents using FRNA bacteriophage GA. A greater percentage (98%) of infectious virus is released in CSO discharges than UV treated effluent (44%). Following a CSO discharge, concentrations of NoV GII and infectious FRNA bacteriophage GA in oysters from less than the limit of detection to 3150 genome copies 100 g(-1) and 1050 PFU 100 g(-1) respectively.

Simulated sunlight inactivation of norovirus and FRNA bacteriophage in seawater

AIMS

To investigate norovirus (NoV) and F-specific RNA (FRNA) bacteriophage inactivation in seawater under simulated sunlight and temperature conditions representative of summer (235 W m(-2) ; 17°C) and winter (56 W m(-2) ; 10°C) conditions in Ireland.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Inactivation experiments were carried out using a collimated beam of simulated sunlight and 100 ml of filtered seawater seeded with virus under controlled temperature conditions. NoV concentrations were determined using RT-qPCR, and FRNA bacteriophage concentrations were determined using RT-qPCR and by plaque assay. For all virus types, the fluence required to achieve a 90% reduction in detectable viruses (S90 value) using RT-qPCR was not significantly different between summer and winter conditions. S90 values for FRNA bacteriophage determined by plaque assay were significantly less than those determined by RT-qPCR. Unlike S90 values determined by RT-qPCR, a significant difference existed between summer and winter S90 values for infectious FRNA bacteriophage.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that RT-qPCR significantly overestimates the survival of infectious virus and is therefore unsuitable for determining the inactivation rates of viruses in seawater.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Results from this study provide initial data on the inactivation of NoV and FRNA bacteriophage in seawater under representative summer and winter conditions and will be of interest to shellfish and water management agencies alike.