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Wang D, Li Z, Wang Y, Wei T, Hou Y, Zhao X, Ding Y. Exploring particle concentrations and inside-to-outside ratios in vehicles: A real-time road test study. Sci Total Environ 2024; 919:170783. [PMID: 38340852 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
In transportation microenvironments, humans exposed to particulate matter (PM) inside vehicles can experience higher levels of daily exposure. To make inside-vehicle PM exposure measurements more feasible and easy under real driving conditions, and to quantify the relationship between the concentrations and influencing factors, we assessed PM1, PM2.5, and PM10. levels. Additionally, we collected key influencing factors to develop predictive models. The measurements of PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 concentrations showed that the ventilation setting was a significant influencing factor. The concentrations decreased significantly under the recirculation setting (RC) compared to the outside air setting (OA). The inside-to-outside (I/O) ratios of PM were 1.69 to 1.93-fold higher than those of RC under OA conditions. However, a substantial reduction in the I/O ratios was observed when RC was employed. Although both the concentrations and I/O ratios exhibited significant differences, they demonstrated strong potential relationships. PM2.5 I/O ratios accounted for over 85 % of the variation in the PM1 and PM10 I/O ratios. The developed models for the I/O ratios of PM accounted for >40 and 60 % of the variation in the measured I/O ratios for RC and OA, respectively. We used the vehicle age, vehicle interior volume, speed, cabin temperature, cabin humidity, and their higher-order terms as predictive variables. It is important to note that the influential predictive feature importance differed under RC and OA, and considering the vehicle characteristics between vehicles of the same type may be necessary when using RC. Overall, these findings indicate that the inside-vehicle PM exposure can be measured more easily under real driving conditions by considering the key influencing factors and utilizing the developed predictive models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danlu Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Vehicle Emission Control and Simulation, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Zhenglei Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Vehicle Emission Control and Simulation, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Yunjing Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Vehicle Emission Control and Simulation, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Tong Wei
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Yaxuan Hou
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Vehicle Emission Control and Simulation, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Xiuge Zhao
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Vehicle Emission Control and Simulation, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China.
| | - Yan Ding
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Vehicle Emission Control and Simulation, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China.
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Quintana PJE, Khalighi M, Castillo Quiñones JE, Patel Z, Guerrero Garcia J, Martinez Vergara P, Bryden M, Mantz A. Traffic pollutants measured inside vehicles waiting in line at a major US-Mexico Port of Entry. Sci Total Environ 2018; 622-623:236-243. [PMID: 29216464 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Revised: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
At US-Mexico border Ports of Entry, vehicles idle for long times waiting to cross northbound into the US. Long wait times at the border have mainly been studied as an economic issue, however, exposures to emissions from idling vehicles can also present an exposure risk. Here we present the first data on in-vehicle exposures to driver and passengers crossing the US-Mexico border at the San Ysidro, California Port of Entry (SYPOE). Participants were recruited who regularly commuted across the border in either direction and told to drive a scripted route between two border universities, one in the US and one in Mexico. Instruments were placed in participants' cars prior to commute to monitor-1-minute average levels of the traffic pollutants ultrafine particles (UFP), black carbon (BC) and carbon monoxide (CO) in the breathing zone of drivers and passengers. Location was determined by a GPS monitor. Results reported here are for 68 northbound participant trips. The highest median levels of in-vehicle UFP were recorded during the wait to cross at the SYPOE (median 29,692particles/cm3) significantly higher than the portion of the commute in the US (median 20,508particles/cm3) though not that portion in Mexico (median 22, 191particles/cm3). In-vehicle BC levels at the border were significantly lower than in other parts of the commute. Our results indicate that waiting in line at the SYPOE contributes a median 62.5% (range 15.5%-86.0%) of a cross-border commuter's exposure to UFP and a median 44.5% (range (10.6-79.7%) of exposure to BC inside the vehicle while traveling in the northbound direction. Reducing border wait time can significantly reduce in-vehicle exposures to toxic air pollutants such as UFP and BC, and these preventable exposures can be considered an environmental justice issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penelope J E Quintana
- San Diego State University Graduate School of Public Health, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-4162, USA.
| | - Mehdi Khalighi
- Millersville University, Department of Applied Engineering, Safety & Technology Occupational Safety & Environmental Health Program, 40 East Frederick Street, Millersville, PA 17551, USA
| | - Javier Emmanuel Castillo Quiñones
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas e Ingenieria, Calzada Universidad 14418 Parque Industrial Internacional, Tijuana B.C. 22427, Mexico
| | - Zalak Patel
- San Diego State University Graduate School of Public Health, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-4162, USA
| | - Jesus Guerrero Garcia
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas e Ingenieria, Calzada Universidad 14418 Parque Industrial Internacional, Tijuana B.C. 22427, Mexico
| | - Paulina Martinez Vergara
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas e Ingenieria, Calzada Universidad 14418 Parque Industrial Internacional, Tijuana B.C. 22427, Mexico
| | - Megan Bryden
- San Diego State University Graduate School of Public Health, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-4162, USA
| | - Antoinette Mantz
- San Diego State University Graduate School of Public Health, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-4162, USA
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Hudda N, Fruin SA. Carbon dioxide accumulation inside vehicles: The effect of ventilation and driving conditions. Sci Total Environ 2018; 610-611:1448-1456. [PMID: 28873666 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Limiting the air exchange of passenger vehicles by closing windows and recirculating cabin air (RC) restricts the influx of roadway pollutants and reduces in-vehicle particulate concentrations. However, the carbon dioxide (CO2) exhaled by the occupants can accumulate under these conditions to reach high concentrations. We characterized the factors (ventilation setting, vehicle age, speed, cabin volume, trip duration, and number of occupants) that allow CO2 accumulation to reach concentration thresholds found in other studies to produce cognitive or physiological effects of concern such as fatigue or difficulty concentrating. Ventilation setting was the primary determinant of CO2 accumulation; only the RC setting (and not outside-air intake) ever allows CO2 accumulations to exceed thresholds of concern. Longer trips with multiple occupants are a particular concern. Even so, under RC setting, a 2500ppm threshold-the threshold consistently linked to detrimental cognitive effects-would not be exceeded for most one- or even two-occupant average-duration commutes (twenty-six minutes in the U.S.). For multiple passenger commutes and/or longer trips, RC ventilation should be periodically interrupted or partially mixed with outside air to keep CO2 concentrations below 2500ppm.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Hudda
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA.
| | - S A Fruin
- Keck School of Medicine, Environmental Health Division, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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Lee GW, Bae MJ, Yang JY, Son JW, Cho JL, Lee SG, Jang BM, Lee HW, Lim JS, Shin DC, Lim YW. Decreased blood pressure associated with in-vehicle exposure to carbon monoxide in Korean volunteers. Environ Health Prev Med 2017; 22:34. [PMID: 29165122 PMCID: PMC5664420 DOI: 10.1186/s12199-017-0622-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the primary components of emissions from light-duty vehicles, and reportedly comprises 77% of all pollutants emitted in terms of concentration. Exposure to CO aggravates cardiovascular disease and causes other health disorders. The study was aimed to assess the negative effects by injecting different amounts of CO concentration directly to human volunteers boarding in the car. Methods Human volunteers were exposed to CO concentrations of 0, 33.2, and 72.4 ppm, respectively during the first test and 0, 30.3, and 48.8 ppm respectively during the second test while seated in the car. The volunteers were exposed to each concentration for approximately 45 min. After exposure, blood pressure measurement, blood collection (carboxyhemoglobin [COHb] analysis), medical interview, echocardiography test, and cognitive reaction test were performed. Result In patients who were exposed to a mean concentration of CO for 72.4 ± 1.4 ppm during the first exposure test and 48.8 ± 3.7 ppm during the second exposure test, the COHb level exceeded 2%. Moreover, the diastolic blood pressure was decreased while increasing in CO concentration after exposure. The medical interview findings showed that the degree of fatigue was increased and the degree of concentration was reduced when the exposed concentration of CO was increased. Conclusion Although the study had a limited sample size, we found that even a low concentration of CO flowing into a car could have a negative influence on human health, such as change of blood pressure and degree of fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geon-Woo Lee
- Department of Public Health, Graduate School, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea.,The Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Mun-Joo Bae
- Graduate School of Public Health, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ji-Yeon Yang
- The Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jung-Woo Son
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jae-Lim Cho
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Incheon, Korea
| | - Sang-Gyu Lee
- The Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Bo-Mi Jang
- The Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyun-Woo Lee
- Korea Automobile Testing & Research Institute, 200 Samjon-ro, Songsan-myun, Hwaseong-si, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
| | - Jong-Soon Lim
- Korea Automobile Testing & Research Institute, 200 Samjon-ro, Songsan-myun, Hwaseong-si, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
| | - Dong-Chun Shin
- The Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Preventive Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young-Wook Lim
- The Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea.
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