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Chan JMS, Jin PS, Ng M, Garnell J, Ying CW, Tec CT, Bhakoo K. Development of Molecular Magnetic Resonance Imaging Tools for Risk Stratification of Carotid Atherosclerotic Disease Using Dual-Targeted Microparticles of Iron Oxide. Transl Stroke Res 2021; 13:245-256. [PMID: 34304360 PMCID: PMC8918460 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-021-00931-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Identification of patients with high-risk asymptomatic carotid plaques remains a challenging but crucial step in stroke prevention. Inflammation is the key factor that drives plaque instability. Currently, there is no imaging tool in routine clinical practice to assess the inflammatory status within atherosclerotic plaques. We have developed a molecular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tool to quantitatively report the inflammatory activity in atherosclerosis using dual-targeted microparticles of iron oxide (DT-MPIO) against P-selectin and VCAM-1 as a smart MRI probe. A periarterial cuff was used to generate plaques with varying degree of phenotypes, inflammation and risk levels at specific locations along the same single carotid artery in an Apolipoprotein-E-deficient mouse model. Using this platform, we demonstrated that in vivo DT-MPIO-enhanced MRI can (i) target high-risk vulnerable plaques, (ii) differentiate the heterogeneity (i.e. high vs intermediate vs low-risk plaques) within the asymptomatic plaque population and (iii) quantitatively report the inflammatory activity of local plaques in carotid artery. This novel molecular MRI tool may allow characterisation of plaque vulnerability and quantitative reporting of inflammatory status in atherosclerosis. This would permit accurate risk stratification by identifying high-risk asymptomatic individual patients for prophylactic carotid intervention, expediting early stroke prevention and paving the way for personalised management of carotid atherosclerotic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce M S Chan
- Translational Cardiovascular Imaging Group, Institute of Bioengineering and Bioimaging (IBB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore. .,Department of Vascular Surgery, Singapore General Hospital, SingHealth, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Park Sung Jin
- Translational Cardiovascular Imaging Group, Institute of Bioengineering and Bioimaging (IBB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Michael Ng
- Translational Cardiovascular Imaging Group, Institute of Bioengineering and Bioimaging (IBB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Joanne Garnell
- Translational Cardiovascular Imaging Group, Institute of Bioengineering and Bioimaging (IBB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chan Wan Ying
- Division of Oncologic Imaging, National Cancer Centre, SingHealth, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chong Tze Tec
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Singapore General Hospital, SingHealth, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kishore Bhakoo
- Institute of Bioengineering and Bioimaging (IBB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
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Janani B, Al-Mohaimeed AM, Raju LL, Al Farraj DA, Thomas AM, Khan SS. Synthesis and characterizations of hybrid PEG-Fe 3O 4 nanoparticles for the efficient adsorptive removal of dye and antibacterial, and antibiofilm applications. J Environ Health Sci Eng 2021; 19:389-400. [PMID: 34150243 PMCID: PMC8172665 DOI: 10.1007/s40201-021-00612-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Dyes are highly toxic coloured compounds in nature that are largely applied in paper, food, textile and printing industries. Here, the adsorption technique was performed to remove methyl orange (MO) dye from water by polyethylene glycol (PEG) modified iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs). METHODS The method used for Fe3O4 NPs synthesis was chemical precipitation. The particles were analyzed by transmission electron microscope, magnetometer, BET analyzer, fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, zetasizer and particle size analyzer. The influence of pH (4.0 to 10.0), NaCl concentration (0.01 mM to 2 M), adsorbent dosage (1 to 10 mg), and the role of surface charge on adsorptive removal were investigated. RESULTS The NPs size, zeta potential and surface area was found to be 26 ± 1.26 nm, 33.12 ± 1.01 mV and 119 m2/g respectively. The adsorption of MO on Fe3O4 NPs agreed best to Freundlich model (R2 = 0.965) when compared with Langmuir model (R2 = 0.249). By comparing pseudo-first-order kinetic model (R2 = 0.937), kinetic adsorption study was better followed by pseudo-second-order kinetic model (R2 = 1). The adsorption rate decreased with increasing NaCl concentration. At pH 4, maximum adsorption was noted. The particles were also exhibited excellent antibacterial and antibiofilm activities. The ROS formation, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress were increased with increase in NPs concentration. The NPs precoated slides exhibited more than 50% growth inhibition. CONCLUSION The investigation denotes the versatile applications of the prepared particles for removing the dye stuffs from industrial effluents and as antibacterial and antibiofilm agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Janani
- Nanobiotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, Tamil Nadu India
| | - Amal M. Al-Mohaimeed
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 22452, Riyadh, 11495 Saudi Arabia
| | - Lija L. Raju
- Department of Zoology, Mar Ivanios College, Nalanchira, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Dunia A. Al Farraj
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ajith M. Thomas
- Department of Botany and Biotechnology, St Xavier’s College, Thumba, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - S. Sudheer Khan
- Nanobiotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, Tamil Nadu India
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Gilchrist S, Kinchesh P, Zarghami N, Khrapitchev AA, Sibson NR, Kersemans V, Smart SC. Improved detection of molecularly targeted iron oxide particles in mouse brain using B 0 field stabilised high resolution MRI. Magn Reson Imaging 2020; 67:101-108. [PMID: 31935444 PMCID: PMC7049896 DOI: 10.1016/j.mri.2020.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE High resolution multi-gradient echo (MGE) scanning is typically used for detection of molecularly targeted iron oxide particles. The images of individual echoes are often combined to generate a composite image with improved SNR from the early echoes and boosted contrast from later echoes. In 3D implementations prolonged scanning at high gradient duty cycles induces a B0 shift that predominantly affects image alignment in the slow phase encoding dimension of 3D MGE images. The effect corrupts the composite echo image and limits the image resolution that is realised. A real-time adaptive B0 stabilisation during respiration gated 3D MGE scanning is shown to reduce image misalignment and improve detection of molecularly targeted iron oxide particles in composite images of the mouse brain. METHODS An optional B0 measurement block consisting of a 16 μs hard pulse with FA 1°, an acquisition delay of 3.2 ms, followed by gradient spoiling in all three axes was added to a respiration gated 3D MGE scan. During the acquisition delay of each B0 measurement block the NMR signal was routed to a custom built B0 stabilisation unit which mixed the signal to an audio frequency nominally centred around 1000 Hz to enable an Arduino based single channel receiver to measure frequency shifts. The frequency shift was used to effect correction to the main magnetic field via the B0 coil. The efficacy of B0 stabilisation and respiration gating was validated in vivo and used to improve detection of molecularly targeted microparticles of iron oxide (MPIO) in a mouse model of acute neuroinflammation. RESULTS Without B0 stabilisation 3D MGE image data exhibit varying mixtures of translation, scaling and blurring, which compromise the fidelity of the composite image. The real-time adaptive B0 stabilisation minimises corruption of the composite image as the images from the different echoes are properly aligned. The improved detection of molecularly targeted MPIO easily compensates for the scan time penalty of 14% incurred by the B0 stabilisation method employed. Respiration gating of the B0 measurement and the MRI scan was required to preserve high resolution detail, especially towards the back of the brain. CONCLUSIONS High resolution imaging for the detection of molecularly targeted iron oxide particles in the mouse brain requires good stabilisation of the main B0 field, and can benefit from a respiration gated image acquisition strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Gilchrist
- Cancer Research UK and Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom.
| | - Paul Kinchesh
- Cancer Research UK and Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Niloufar Zarghami
- Cancer Research UK and Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alexandre A Khrapitchev
- Cancer Research UK and Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola R Sibson
- Cancer Research UK and Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Veerle Kersemans
- Cancer Research UK and Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Sean C Smart
- Cancer Research UK and Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
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Baroni S, Ruggiero MR, Bitonto V, Broche LM, Lurie DJ, Aime S, Geninatti Crich S. In vivo assessment of tumour associated macrophages in murine melanoma obtained by low-field relaxometry in the presence of iron oxide particles. Biomaterials 2020; 236:119805. [PMID: 32028168 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.119805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Tumour-associated macrophages (TAM) are forced by cancer cells to adopt an anti-inflammatory phenotype and secrete factors to promote tumour invasion thus being responsible for poor patient outcome. The aim of this study is to develop a clinically applicable, non-invasive method to obtain a quantitative TAM detection in tumour tissue. The method is based on longitudinal proton relaxation rate (R1) measurements at low field (0.01-1 MHz) to assess the localization of ferumoxytol (clinical approved iron oxide particles) in TAM present in melanoma tumours, where R1 = 1/T1. R1 at low magnetic fields appears highly dependent on the intra or extra cellular localization of the nanoparticles thus allowing an unambiguous TAM quantification. R1 profiles were acquired on a Fast Field-Cycling relaxometer equipped with a 40 mm wide bore magnet and an 11 mm solenoid detection coil placed around the anatomical region of interest. The R1 values measured 3 h and 24 h after the injection were significantly different. At 24 h R1 exhibited a behavior similar to "in vitro" ferumoxytol-labelled J774A.1 macrophages whereas at 3 h, when the ferumoxytol distribution was extracellular, R1 exhibited higher values similar to that of free ferumoxytol in solution. This finding clearly indicated the intracellular localization of ferumoxytol at 24 h, as confirmed by histological analysis (Pearls and CD68 assays). This information could be hardly achievable from measurements at a single magnetic field and opens new horizons for cell tracking applications using FFC-MRI.
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Scharlach C, Warmuth C, Schellenberger E. Determination of blood circulation times of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles by T2* relaxometry using ultrashort echo time (UTE) MRI. Magn Reson Imaging 2015; 33:1173-1177. [PMID: 26119420 DOI: 10.1016/j.mri.2015.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Blood circulation is an important determinant of the biodistribution of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. Here we present a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique based on the use of ultrafast echo times (UTE) for the noninvasive determination of blood half-lives at high particle concentrations, when conventional pulse sequences fail to produce a useful MR signal. Four differently coated iron oxide nanoparticles were administered intravenously at a dose of 500 μmol Fe/kg bodyweight and UTE images of C57BL/6 mice were acquired on a 1-T ICON scanner (Bruker). T2* relaxometry was done by acquiring UTE images with echo times of 0.1, 0.8 and 1.6 ms. Blood circulation time was then determined by fitting an exponential curve to the time course of the measured relaxation rates. Circulation time was shortest for particles coated with malic acid (t1/2=23 min) and longest for particles coated with tartaric acid (t1/2=63 min). UTE-based T2* relaxometry allows noninvasive determination of blood circulation time and is especially useful when high particle concentrations are present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constantin Scharlach
- Department of Radiology-Molecular Imaging Group, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany
| | - Carsten Warmuth
- Department of Radiology-Molecular Imaging Group, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany
| | - Eyk Schellenberger
- Department of Radiology-Molecular Imaging Group, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany.
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Scharlach C, Kratz H, Wiekhorst F, Warmuth C, Schnorr J, Genter G, Ebert M, Mueller S, Schellenberger E. Synthesis of acid-stabilized iron oxide nanoparticles and comparison for targeting atherosclerotic plaques: evaluation by MRI, quantitative MPS, and TEM alternative to ambiguous Prussian blue iron staining. Nanomedicine 2015; 11:1085-95. [PMID: 25659644 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2015.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Revised: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED To further optimize citrate-stabilized VSOPs (very small iron oxide particles, developed for MR angiography) for identification of atherosclerotic plaques, we modified their surface during synthesis using eight other acids for electrostatic stabilization. This approach preserves effective production for clinical application. Five particles were suitable to be investigated in targeting plaques of apoE(-/-) mice. Accumulation was evaluated by ex vivo MRI, TEM, and quantitatively by magnetic particle spectroscopy (MPS). Citric- (VSOP), etidronic-, tartaric-, and malic-acid-coated particles accumulated in atherosclerotic plaques with highest accumulation for VSOP (0.2‰ of injected dose). Targets were phagolysosomes of macrophages and of altered endothelial cells. In vivo MRI with VSOP allowed for definite plaque identification. Prussian blue staining revealed abundant endogenous iron in plaques, indistinguishable from particle iron. In apoE(-/-) mice, VSOPs are still the best anionic iron oxide particles for imaging atherosclerotic plaques. MPS allows for quantification of superparamagnetic nanoparticles in such small specimens. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR The presence of vulnerable plaques in arteries is important for the prediction of acute coronary events. VSOP (very small iron oxide particles, developed for MR angiography) have been shown to be very sensitive in identifying atherosclerotic plaques. The authors studied here further modification to the surface of VSOP during synthesis and compared their efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Harald Kratz
- Department of Radiology, Charité, Berlin, Germany
| | - Frank Wiekhorst
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Jörg Schnorr
- Department of Radiology, Charité, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Monika Ebert
- Department of Radiology, Charité, Berlin, Germany
| | - Susanne Mueller
- Department of Experimental Neurology, Center for Stroke Research Berlin (CSB), Charité, Berlin, Germany
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Chan JMS, Monaco C, Wylezinska-Arridge M, Tremoleda JL, Gibbs RGJ. Imaging of the vulnerable carotid plaque: biological targeting of inflammation in atherosclerosis using iron oxide particles and MRI. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2014; 47:462-9. [PMID: 24594295 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejvs.2014.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Identification of those patients with high-risk asymptomatic carotid plaques remains an elusive but essential step in stroke prevention. Inflammation is a key process in plaque destabilization and the propensity of atherosclerotic lesions to cause clinical sequelae. There is currently no clinical imaging technique available to assess the degree of inflammation associated with plaques. This study aims at visualizing and characterizing atherosclerosis using antibody-conjugated superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) particles as an MRI probe to assess inflammation in human atherosclerotic plaques. METHODS Atherosclerotic plaques were collected from 20 consecutive patients (n=10 from symptomatic patients, n=10 from asymptomatic patients) undergoing carotid endarterectomy (CEA) for extracranial high-grade internal carotid artery (ICA) stenosis (>70% luminal narrowing). Inflammatory markers on human atherosclerotic plaques were detected and characterized by ex vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) using anti-VCAM-1 antibody and anti-E-selectin antibody-conjugated SPIO with confirmatory immunohistochemistry. RESULTS Inflammation associated with human ex vivo atherosclerotic plaques could be imaged using dual antibody-conjugated SPIO by MRI. Symptomatic plaques could be distinguished from asymptomatic ones by the degree of inflammation, and the MR contrast effect was significantly correlated with the degree of plaque inflammation (r=.64, p<.001). The asymptomatic plaque population exhibited heterogeneity in terms of inflammation. The dual-targeted SPIO-induced MR signal not only tracked closely with endothelial activation (i.e. endothelial expression of VCAM-1 and E-selectin), but also reflected the macrophage burden within plaque lesions, offering a potential imaging tool for quantitative MRI of inflammatory activity in atherosclerosis. CONCLUSIONS These functional molecular MRI probes constitute a novel imaging tool for ex vivo characterization of atherosclerosis at a molecular level. Further development and translation into the clinical arena will facilitate more accurate risk stratification in carotid artery disease in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M S Chan
- Regional Vascular Unit, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Imperial College London, UK
| | - C Monaco
- Cytokine Biology of Atherosclerosis, Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Imperial College London, UK
| | - M Wylezinska-Arridge
- Biological Imaging Centre, Clinical Sciences Centre, Medical Research Council, Imperial College London, UK
| | - J L Tremoleda
- Biological Imaging Centre, Clinical Sciences Centre, Medical Research Council, Imperial College London, UK
| | - R G J Gibbs
- Regional Vascular Unit, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Imperial College London, UK.
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Wittenborn TR, Larsen EKU, Nielsen T, Rydtoft LM, Hansen L, Nygaard JV, Vorup-Jensen T, Kjems J, Horsman MR, Nielsen NC. Accumulation of nano-sized particles in a murine model of angiogenesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 443:470-6. [PMID: 24321551 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.11.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the ability of nm-scaled iron oxide particles conjugated with Azure A, a classic histological dye, to accumulate in areas of angiogenesis in a recently developed murine angiogenesis model. MATERIALS AND METHODS We characterised the Azure A particles with regard to their hydrodynamic size, zeta potential, and blood circulation half-life. The particles were then investigated by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in a recently developed murine angiogenesis model along with reference particles (Ferumoxtran-10) and saline injections. RESULTS The Azure A particles had a mean hydrodynamic diameter of 51.8 ± 43.2 nm, a zeta potential of -17.2 ± 2.8 mV, and a blood circulation half-life of 127.8 ± 74.7 min. Comparison of MR images taken pre- and 24-h post-injection revealed a significant increase in R2(*) relaxation rates for both Azure A and Ferumoxtran-10 particles. No significant difference was found for the saline injections. The relative increase was calculated for the three groups, and showed a significant difference between the saline group and the Azure A group, and between the saline group and the Ferumoxtran-10 group. However, no significant difference was found between the two particle groups. CONCLUSION Ultrahigh-field MRI revealed localisation of both types of iron oxide particles to areas of neovasculature. However, the Azure A particles did not show any enhanced accumulation relative to Ferumoxtran-10, suggesting the accumulation in both cases to be passive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R Wittenborn
- Department of Experimental Clinical Oncology, Aarhus University Hospital, Noerrebrogade 44, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Esben K U Larsen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, C.F. Moellers Allé 3, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Nanomedicine Center for Individualized Management of Tissue Damage and Regeneration (LUNA), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Thomas Nielsen
- Department of Experimental Clinical Oncology, Aarhus University Hospital, Noerrebrogade 44, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Louise M Rydtoft
- Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience (CFIN), Aarhus University Hospital, Noerrebrogade 44, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Line Hansen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, C.F. Moellers Allé 3, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Nanomedicine Center for Individualized Management of Tissue Damage and Regeneration (LUNA), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jens V Nygaard
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Department of Engineering, Aarhus University, Finlandsgade 22, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Thomas Vorup-Jensen
- The Lundbeck Foundation Nanomedicine Center for Individualized Management of Tissue Damage and Regeneration (LUNA), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 6, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jørgen Kjems
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, C.F. Moellers Allé 3, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Nanomedicine Center for Individualized Management of Tissue Damage and Regeneration (LUNA), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Michael R Horsman
- Department of Experimental Clinical Oncology, Aarhus University Hospital, Noerrebrogade 44, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Niels Chr Nielsen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Nanomedicine Center for Individualized Management of Tissue Damage and Regeneration (LUNA), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Center for Insoluble Protein Structures (inSPIN) and Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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