A scalable approach to improve CSA targeting practices among smallholder farmers

With climate change, population growth, and land degradation exerting mounting pressures on agricultural systems in developing countries, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) strategies have been prioritized as a means to strengthen smallholder farmers' resilience. However, precise targeting methodologies remain a challenge. This study employs a comprehensive approach, integrating Socio-economic, and Biophysical (SEBP), and the Five Capitals Model analyses encompassing human, social, physical, natural, and financial capital. The study employs factor analysis for mixed data (FAMD), cluster analysis using partitioning around the medoids (PAM) and univariate and bivariate techniques to identify and classify distinct typologies of smallholder farming systems in Senegal's Tambacounda and Sedhiou regions in 2020. A probit regression model gauges CSA adoption probability, to better focus CSA efforts. Results underscore the pivotal role of SEBP factors in shaping distinct farmer typologies, enabling precise CSA targeting. Geographical distribution patterns of these typologies reveal non-random clustering, particularly in specific regions. Four farmer typologies emerge: Cluster 1 (Sedhiou, low-income, high climate challenges), Cluster 2 (Sedhiou and Tambacounda, low-to middle-income, moderate climatic challenges), Cluster 3 (Tambacounda, high income, favorable climate), and Cluster 4 (Tambacounda, low income, severe climate challenges). Technology mismatches emerge between farmers' SEBP profiles and capital assets, prompting the identification of relevant technologies for soil fertility restoration and increased output. These findings highlight the importance of implementing CSAs in accordance with specific requirements, such as enhancing soil fertility, yield, and nutritional quality. A contextual understanding of local agricultural dynamics is likewise necessary for optimizing intervention strategies, according to the study.

The influence and impact of livelihood capitals on livelihood diversification strategies in developing countries: a systematic literature review

Livelihood diversification is an essential strategy for managing economic and environmental shocks and reducing rural poverty in developing countries. This article presents a comprehensive two-part literature review on livelihood capital and livelihood diversification strategies. Firstly, it identifies the role of livelihood capital in determining livelihood diversification strategies, and secondly, it assesses the role of livelihood diversification strategies in reducing rural poverty in developing countries. Evidence suggests that human, natural, and financial capitals are the primary determining assets of livelihood diversification strategies. However, the role of social and physical capital with livelihood diversification has not widely been studied. Education, farming experience, family size, land holding size, access to formal credit, access to market, and membership in village organizations were the major influencing factors in the adoption process of livelihood diversification strategies. The contribution of livelihood diversification in poverty reduction (SDG-1) was realized through improved food security and nutrition, increased income level, sustainability of crop production, and mitigating climatic vulnerabilities. This study suggests enhanced livelihood diversification through improved access to and availability of livelihood assets is vital in reducing rural poverty in developing countries.

Determinants of livelihood diversification in rural rain-fed region of Pakistan: evidence from fractional multinomial logit (FMLOGIT) estimation

Sustainable livelihoods in less developed countries are threatened by human, natural, physical, social and financial factors. Pakistan is also facing severe negative impacts of these factors in the form of climate shocks, market imperfections and insufficient formal credit availability on rural livelihoods. This study explores rural Pakistani's adaptation to these threats by diversifying income sources and explores the determining factors for adopting specific livelihood diversification strategies. The study is based on a quantitative survey of 295 households in three districts of rain-fed rural regions of Pakistan's Punjab with differing annual rainfall. Results showed that households mitigated against threats to their livelihood by having a diversity of income sources (Simpson Diversity Index = 0.61). Moreover, fractional multinomial regression modelling revealed that greater education was associated with a more diversified livelihood strategy, where income was predominantly derived from off-farm and non-farm livelihood activities. On the other hand, households with older members, more livestock and larger farm size focused their livelihoods on their own farms, or primarily diversified into an off-farm strategy by working on other farms. These findings underscore the importance of improved access to education and infrastructure for livelihood diversification. A policy that focuses on reducing low literacy rates in rural Pakistan may also provide new avenues of livelihood diversifications with enhancement of rural literacy rate to mitigate the risks associated with livelihood strategies of smallholders.

Resilience of small-scale marine fishers of Bangladesh against the COVID-19 pandemic and the 65-day fishing ban

In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic-induced nationwide lockdown (March-May) and the conservation-related 65-day fishing ban (May-July) in Bangladesh restricted its small-scale fishing folks from fishing for an unprecedented 130 days. This study assessed the resilience of two small-scale fishing communities in Barguna and Cox's Bazar districts against these subsequent disturbances. The research developed a conceptual framework based on Zurich Flood Resilience Alliance's '5 C-4R Framework', which considers the relationships among a wide range of sources of resilience with livelihood capitals and resilience properties. By analyzing 100 interviews with marine fishers, this paper showed how weakened livelihood capitals affected the resilience of fishing communities. Dependency on a single income source, inadequate access to aid and financial and natural resources, lack of skills and knowledge on alternative livelihood options, absence of strong social protection and social networks, social inequalities, institutional incompetence, and lack of community leadership and cooperation severely affected fishers' resilience. This study revealed that financial capital is directly linked with all resilience properties that require special attention to ensure fishers' well-being. The paper recommended drastic investments in small-scale marine fishers through long-term livelihood improvement and asset creation, skills and knowledge development on natural-resource-based alternative income generation activities, and an exclusive social safety net program for these fisherfolks. The approach and findings of this study can guide other emerging economies who enjoy significant contributions from the marine fisheries sector to understand the resilience of their fishers and to address the prevailing challenges owing to the pandemic and other natural calamities.

Can tourism development enhance livelihood capitals of rural households? Evidence from Huangshan National Park adjacent communities, China

Measuring the change of the livelihood capitals of rural households in park-adjacent communities under the background of tourism development is an important predictor to identify the sustainable development status of national parks. This paper constructs measurement indicators of the livelihood capitals of rural household in communities surrounding national parks and takes Huangshan National Park, located in eastern China, as an example to calculate characteristics of spatiotemporal changes in the livelihood capitals of rural households, analyze the effect of tourism development on livelihood capitals in adjacent communities in 2006 and 2015. The findings indicate that the annual growth of the total livelihood capital has comparatively strong rigidity. However, there are some differences in temporal changes between different types of livelihood capitals. The distribution of zones of medium and high livelihood capital is mainly distributed in the communities adjacent to the national park research, education and recreation area (RERA). In addition, the total livelihood capital takes the RERA as the centre and decays over distance, which demonstrates that tourism development is an effective way to enhance the livelihood capitals. On the other hand, there is a spatial attenuation effect of tourism development on the enhancement of the livelihood capitals.

Collective influence of household and community capitals on agricultural employment as a measure of rural poverty in the Mahanadi Delta, India

The main determinants of agricultural employment are related to households' access to private assets and the influence of inherited social-economic stratification and power relationships. However, despite the recommendations of rural studies which have shown the importance of multilevel approaches to rural poverty, very few studies have explored quantitatively the effects of common-pool resources and household livelihood capitals on agricultural employment. Understanding the influence of access to both common-pool resources and private assets on rural livelihoods can enrich our understanding of the drivers of rural poverty in agrarian societies, which is central to achieving sustainable development pathways. Based on a participatory assessment conducted in rural communities in India, this paper differentiates two levels of livelihood capitals (household capitals and community capitals) and quantifies them using national census data and remotely sensed satellite sensor data. We characterise the effects of these two levels of livelihood capitals on precarious agricultural employment by using multilevel logistic regression. Our study brings a new perspective on livelihood studies and rural economics by demonstrating that common-pool resources and private assets do not have the same effect on agricultural livelihoods. It identifies that a lack of access to human, financial and social capitals at the household level increases the levels of precarious agricultural employment, such as daily-wage agricultural labour. Households located in communities with greater access to collective natural capital are less likely to be agricultural labourers. The statistical models also show that proximity to rural centres and access to financial infrastructures increase the likelihood of being a landless agricultural labourer. These findings suggest that investment in rural infrastructure might increase livelihood vulnerability, if not accompanied by an improvement in the provisioning of complementary rural services, such as access to rural finance, and by the implementation of agricultural tenancy laws to protect smallholders' productive assets.