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Mahmood F, Oguntala JO, Henoud C, Pierre-Louis LL, Fuad A, Okafor I. The CASPER preparation program innovation: increasing self-perceived competence and confidence of underrepresented applicants on the novel CASPER Snapshot and CanMEDS roles. BMC Med Educ 2023; 23:113. [PMID: 36793040 PMCID: PMC9930699 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-023-04004-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Underrepresented Minorities in Medicine (URMMs) may face financial and social limitations when matriculating into medical schools. Performance on situational judgment tests such as Computer-based Assessment for Sampling Personal Characteristics (CASPER) can be enhanced by coaching and mentorship. The CASPER Preparation Program (CPP) coaches URMMs to prepare for the CASPER test. During the coronavirus 2019 pandemic (COVID-19), CPP implemented novel curricula on the CASPER Snapshot and CanMEDS roles. METHODS Pre and post-program questionnaires were completed by the students, which assessed their: 1) confidence in understanding the CanMEDS roles, and 2) perceived confidence in performing well and their familiarity and preparedness with the CASPER Snapshot. With a second post-program questionnaire, participants' scores on the CASPER test as well as medical school application outcome were also assessed. RESULTS Participants reported a significant increase in the URMMs' knowledge, self-perceived competency to complete the CASPER Snapshot, and their anxiety significantly decreased. The level of confidence in understanding CanMEDS roles for a career in healthcare increased as well. The majority (91%) agreed that the feedback received from tutors was adequate and the virtual component of the program was beneficial during COVID-19. 51% of students scored in the highest quartile on the CASPER test and 35% received an offer of admission from CASPER-requiring medical schools. CONCLUSION Pathway coaching programs have the potential to increase confidence and familiarity amongst URMMs for the CASPER tests and CanMEDS roles. Similar programs should be developed with the aim to increase the chances of URMMs matriculating into medical schools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhan Mahmood
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | | | - Claudine Henoud
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | | | - Asli Fuad
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Ike Okafor
- Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
- Office of Vice Dean, Strategy and Operations, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Naylor Building, Rm 311 6 Queen's Park Cres W, Toronto, ON, M5S 3H2, Canada.
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2
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Breyer F, Lorenz N, Pruckner GJ, Schober T. Looking into the black box of " Medical Innovation": rising health expenditures by illness type. Eur J Health Econ 2022; 23:1601-1612. [PMID: 35298739 PMCID: PMC9666302 DOI: 10.1007/s10198-022-01447-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
There is agreement among health economists that on the whole medical innovation causes health care expenditures (HCE) to rise. This paper analyzes for which diagnoses HCE per patient have grown significantly faster than average HCE. We distinguish decedents (patients in their last 4 years of life) from survivors and use a unique dataset comprising detailed HCE of all members of a regional health insurance fund in Upper Austria for the period 2005-2018. Our results indicate that among decedents in particular, the expenditures for treatment of neoplasms have exceeded the general trend in HCE. This confirms that medical innovation for this group of diseases has been particularly strong over the last 15 years. For survivors, we find a noticeable growth in cases and cost per case for pregnancies and childbirth, and also for treatment of mental and behavioral disorders. We discuss whether these findings contradict the widespread interpretation of cost-increasing innovations as "medical progress" and offer some policy recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich Breyer
- Department of Economics, University of Konstanz, P.O. Box 135, 78457, Konstanz, Germany.
| | | | - Gerald J Pruckner
- Johannes Kepler University of Linz, Linz, Austria
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Aging, Health, and the Labor Market, Linz, Austria
| | - Thomas Schober
- Johannes Kepler University of Linz, Linz, Austria
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Aging, Health, and the Labor Market, Linz, Austria
- Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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3
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James S, Liu Z, Stephens V, White GRT. Innovation in crisis: The role of 'exaptive relations' for medical device development in response to COVID-19. Technol Forecast Soc Change 2022; 182:121863. [PMID: 35855691 PMCID: PMC9276712 DOI: 10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in huge disruption to the healthcare sector. In response to this, there have been collaborative efforts between many different public and private organizations to foster medical innovations. The effect of crisis upon innovation, particularly medical innovation, remains a debatable subject. In addition, the role of inter-personal relations is becoming more widely acknowledged as a critical feature of innovation. Drawing upon exaptation literature, the study aims to understand the nature of the micro-relations within medical innovations that are undertaken in response to COVID-19. The findings of this paper contribute to the limited literature that examines the performance of medical innovation in response to crisis. In addition to confirming the importance of exaptive pools, exaptive events, and exaptive forums in fostering serendipitous developments, the study makes a contribution to theory by identifying a further form of serendipitous encounter that is 'exaptive relations'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffan James
- South Wales Business School, University of South Wales, Llantwit Road, Pontypridd CF37 1DL, UK
| | - Zheng Liu
- Cardiff School of Management, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Western Ave, Cardiff CF5 2YB, UK
| | - Victoria Stephens
- South Wales Business School, University of South Wales, Llantwit Road, Pontypridd CF37 1DL, UK
| | - Gareth R T White
- Cranfield University, College Road, Cranfield, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK
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4
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Minnis P, Walmsley C, Da Silva E. Evaluation of a prone support cushion for use in chronic pain procedures and prone position surgery. J Clin Anesth 2021; 72:110307. [PMID: 33910107 DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinane.2021.110307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Minnis
- Royal Orthopaedic Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK.
| | - Chris Walmsley
- Royal Orthopaedic Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
| | - Egidio Da Silva
- Royal Orthopaedic Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
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5
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Abstract
Governments must become active shapers of medical innovation and drive the development of critical health technologies as global health commons. The ‘race’ for COVID-19 vaccines is exposing the deficiencies of a business-as-usual medical innovation ecosystem driven by corporate interests, not health outcomes. Instead of bolstering collective intelligence, it relies on competition between proprietary vaccines and allows the bar on safety and efficacy to be lowered, risking people’s health and undermining their trust.
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6
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Zetka JR Jr. Innovation, professional identity, and generational divides in medicine: The case of gynecologic laparoscopy in the USA. Soc Sci Med 2020; 266:113350. [PMID: 32947077 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Studies have linked the diffusion of medical innovations to a distinctive professional project. In this project, physician specialists embrace an innovation, work to advance its successes, link these successes to their core-skill definitions, and use this linkage in boundary work to promote their professional identities and expand their jurisdictions, largely by distinguishing themselves from others within their profession. Drawing from a case study examining the diffusion of laparoscopic sterilization procedures in American ob/gyn, this article suggests that a specific type of revitalization movement may serve as an unwitting catalyst for these innovation/professional projects. To promote a"new"specialist identity, this revitalization movement employs foil labeling in its boundary work that dishonors, not outsiders, but established clinicians within the specialty. This dishonoring motivates these clinicians, as a generational cohort, to embrace radical innovations and break established work patterns. Radical innovations may spread across medical fields, not so much through projects bonding professionals to a unified collective, but through reactive projects within highly specialized fields prone to fragment along generational lines.
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Abstract
We study medical progress within a two-sector economy of overlapping generations subject to endogenous mortality. Individuals demand health care with a view to lowering mortality over their life-cycle. We characterise the individual optimum and the general equilibrium, and study the impact of a major medical innovation leading to an improvement in the effectiveness of health care. We find that general equilibrium effects dampen strongly the increase in health care usage following medical innovation. Moreover, an increase in savings offsets the negative impact on GDP per capita of a decline in the support ratio. Finally, we show that the reallocation of resources between the final goods and health care sector, following the innovation, plays a crucial role in shaping the general equilibrium impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Frankovic
- Wittgenstein Centre (Univ. Vienna, IIASA, VID/ÖAW), Vienna Institute of Demography, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Kuhn
- Wittgenstein Centre (Univ. Vienna, IIASA, VID/ÖAW), Vienna Institute of Demography, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stefan Wrzaczek
- Wittgenstein Centre (Univ. Vienna, IIASA, VID/ÖAW), Vienna Institute of Demography, Vienna, Austria
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8
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Jeon SH, Pohl RV. Medical innovation, education, and labor market outcomes of cancer patients. J Health Econ 2019; 68:102228. [PMID: 31521025 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.102228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Innovations in cancer treatment have lowered mortality, but little is known about their economic benefits. We assess the effect of two decades of improvement in cancer treatment options on the labor market outcomes of breast and prostate cancer patients. In addition, we compare this effect across cancer patients with different levels of educational attainment. We estimate the effect of medical innovation on cancer patients' labor market outcomes employing tax return and cancer registry data from Canada and measuring medical innovation by using the number of approved drugs and a quality-adjusted patent index. We find that innovations in cancer treatment during the 1990s and 2000s reduced the negative employment effects of cancer by 63% to 70%, corresponding to a reduction in the economic costs of prostate and breast cancer diagnoses by 13,500 and 5800 dollars per year, respectively. The benefits of medical innovation are limited to cancer patients with postsecondary education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Hee Jeon
- Statistics Canada, Social Analysis and Modelling Division, R.H. Coats Building, Ottawa, ON K1A 0T6, Canada.
| | - R Vincent Pohl
- University of Georgia, Terry College of Business, Department of Economics, 620 S Lumpkin St, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
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9
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Abstract
New health technologies are rapidly emerging from various areas of bioscience research, such as gene editing, regenerative medicine and synthetic biology. These technologies raise promising medical possibilities but also a range of ethical considerations. Apart from the issues involved in considering whether novel health technologies can or should become part of mainstream medical treatment once established, the process of research translation to develop such therapies itself entails particular ethical concerns. In this paper I use synthetic biology as an example of a new and largely unexplored area of health technology to consider the ways in which novel health technologies are likely to emerge and the ethical challenges these will present. I argue that such developments require us to rethink conventional attitudes towards clinical research, the roles of doctors/researchers and patients/participants with respect to research, and the relationship between science and society; and that a broader framework is required to address the plurality of stakeholder roles and interests involved in the development of treatments based on novel technologies.
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10
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Wang JK, Roy SK, Barry M, Chang RT, Bhatt AS. Institutionalizing healthcare hackathons to promote diversity in collaboration in medicine. BMC Med Educ 2018; 18:269. [PMID: 30458759 PMCID: PMC6245929 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-018-1385-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Medical students and healthcare professionals can benefit from exposure to cross-disciplinary teamwork and core concepts of medical innovation. Indeed, to address complex challenges in patient care, diversity in collaboration across medicine, engineering, business, and design is critical. However, a limited number of academic institutions have established cross-disciplinary opportunities for students and young professionals within these domains to work collaboratively towards diverse healthcare needs. METHODS Drawing upon best practices from computer science and engineering, healthcare hackathons bring together interdisciplinary teams of students and professionals to collaborate, brainstorm, and build solutions to unmet clinical needs. Over the course of six months, a committee of 20 undergraduates, medical students, and physician advisors organized Stanford University's first healthcare hackathon (November 2016). Demographic data from initial applications were supplemented with responses from a post-hackathon survey gauging themes of diversity in collaboration, professional development, interest in medical innovation, and educational value. In designing and evaluating the event, the committee focused on measurable outcomes of diversity across participants (skillset, age, gender, academic degree), ideas (clinical needs), and innovations (projects). RESULTS Demographic data (n = 587 applicants, n = 257 participants) reveal participants across diverse academic backgrounds, age groups, and domains of expertise were in attendance. From 50 clinical needs presented representing 19 academic fields, 40 teams ultimately formed and submitted projects spanning web (n = 13) and mobile applications (n = 13), artificial intelligence-based tools (n = 6), and medical devices (n = 3), among others. In post-hackathon survey responses (n = 111), medical students and healthcare professionals alike noted a positive impact on their ability to work in multidisciplinary teams, learn from individuals of different backgrounds, and address complex healthcare challenges. CONCLUSIONS Healthcare hackathons can encourage diversity across individuals, ideas, and projects to address clinical challenges. By providing an outline of Stanford's inaugural event, we hope more universities can adopt the healthcare hackathon model to promote diversity in collaboration in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason K. Wang
- Mathematical and Computational Science Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Shivaal K. Roy
- Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Michele Barry
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University, 269 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
- Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Robert T. Chang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Ami S. Bhatt
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University, 269 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, 269 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
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11
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Wang JK, Pamnani RD, Capasso R, Chang RT. An Extended Hackathon Model for Collaborative Education in Medical Innovation. J Med Syst 2018; 42:239. [PMID: 30328518 DOI: 10.1007/s10916-018-1098-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
To support the next generation of healthcare innovators - whether they be engineers, designers, clinicians, or business experts by training - education in the emerging field of medical innovation should be made easily and widely accessible to undergraduate students, graduate students, and young professionals, early in their careers. Currently, medical innovation curricula are taught through semester-long courses or year-long fellowships at a handful of universities, reaching only a limited demographic of participants. This study describes the structure and preliminary outcomes of a 1-2 week "extended hackathon" course that seeks to make medical innovation education and training more accessible and easily adoptable for academic medical centers. Eight extended hackathons were hosted in five international locations reaching 245 participants: Beijing (June 2015 and August 2016), Hong Kong (June 2016, 2017, and 2018), Curitiba (July 2016), Stanford (October 2017), and São Paulo (May 2018). Pre- and post-hackathon surveys asking respondents to self-assess their knowledge in ten categories of medical innovation were administered to quantify the perceived degree of learning. Participants hailed from a diverse range of educational backgrounds, domains of expertise, and academic institutions. On average, respondents (n = 161) saw a greater than twofold increase (114.1%, P < 0.001) from their pre- to post-hackathon scores. In this study, the extended hackathon is presented as a novel educational model to teach undergraduate and graduate students a foundational skillset for medical innovation. Participants reported gaining significant knowledge across all ten categories assessed. To more robustly assess the educational value of extended hackathons, a standardized assessment for medical innovation knowledge needs to be developed, and a larger sample size of participants surveyed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason K Wang
- Mathematical and Computational Science Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ravinder D Pamnani
- Stanford Byers Center for Biodesign, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Robson Capasso
- Stanford Byers Center for Biodesign, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Sleep Surgery Division, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Robert T Chang
- Stanford Byers Center for Biodesign, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA. .,Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA. .,Stanford Byers Eye Institute, 2452 Watson Ct. MC 5353, Palo Alto, CA, 94303, USA.
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12
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Borracci RA, Giorgi MA. Agent-based computational models to explore diffusion of medical innovations among cardiologists. Int J Med Inform 2018; 112:158-165. [PMID: 29500015 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2018.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diffusion of medical innovations among physicians rests on a set of theoretical assumptions, including learning and decision-making under uncertainty, social-normative pressures, medical expert knowledge, competitive concerns, network performance effects, professional autonomy or individualism and scientific evidence. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to develop and test four real data-based, agent-based computational models (ABM) to qualitatively and quantitatively explore the factors associated with diffusion and application of innovations among cardiologists. METHODS Four ABM were developed to study diffusion and application of medical innovations among cardiologists, considering physicians' network connections, leaders' opinions, "adopters' categories", physicians' autonomy, scientific evidence, patients' pressure, affordability for the end-user population, and promotion from companies. RESULTS Simulations demonstrated that social imitation among local cardiologists was sufficient for innovation diffusion, as long as opinion leaders did not act as detractors of the innovation. Even in the absence of full scientific evidence to support innovation, up to one-fifth of cardiologists could accept it when local leaders acted as promoters. Patients' pressure showed a large effect size (Cohen's d > 1.2) on the proportion of cardiologists applying an innovation. Two qualitative patterns (speckled and granular) appeared associated to traditional Gompertz and sigmoid cumulative distributions. CONCLUSIONS These computational models provided a semiquantitative insight on the emergent collective behavior of a physician population facing the acceptance or refusal of medical innovations. Inclusion in the models of factors related to patients' pressure and accesibility to medical coverage revealed the contrast between accepting and effectively adopting a new product or technology for population health care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raul A Borracci
- Biostatistics, School of Medicine, Austral University, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Mariano A Giorgi
- Health Economics and Technology Assessment Unit, Medical Education and Clinical Investigation Center (CEMIC) University Institute, Argentina
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13
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Dijemeni E, Kotecha B. Drug-Induced Sedation Endoscopy (DISE) DATA FUSION system: clinical feasibility study. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2017; 275:247-260. [PMID: 29043476 PMCID: PMC5754408 DOI: 10.1007/s00405-017-4765-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Drug-induced sleep endoscopy (DISE) is a diagnostic technique for 3D dynamic anatomical visualisation of upper airway obstruction during sedated sleep. There is a lack of standardised procedure and objective measurement associated with information capture, information management, evaluation of DISE findings, treatment planning, and treatment outcomes. The objective of this study is to present clinical feasibility results using a DISE DATA FUSION system for capturing, merging, displaying and storing anatomical data from an endoscopic imaging system and cardiorespiratory data from an anaesthesiological monitoring system simultaneously in real-time during DISE. This prospective cohort study included 20 patients presenting with symptoms of sleep related breathing disorders undergoing drug-induced sedation endoscopy and had volunteered for DISE DATA FUSION system to be used during their DISE assessment. The DISE DATA FUSION system was used to capture, merge, display, and store anatomical changes from an endoscopic imaging system and cardiorespiratory changes from an anaesthesiological monitoring system simultaneously in real time during drug-induced sedation endoscopy assessment. In all 20 patients, anatomical obstructions at different levels of the pharyngeal lumen (soft palate, velum, tonsils, oropharynx lateral wall, base of tongue, and epiglottis) with a different obstruction configuration and severity were captured simultaneously in real time with its associated cardiorespiratory parameters. Furthermore, a composite video consisting of an anatomical image, blood oxygen level, pulse rate, blood pressure, and timestamp was created for every obstructive event. Our system provides a useful and better way of capturing, merging, visualising, and storing anatomical data/physiological data simultaneously during DISE in real time. Furthermore, it enhances the understanding of the impact of the anatomical severity due to the simultaneous display of the cardiovascular parameters at that specific time of anatomical obstruction for optimising surgical decision based on DISE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esuabom Dijemeni
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, UK. .,Research and Development Department, DISE INNOVATION, London, UK.
| | - Bhik Kotecha
- ENT Department, Royal National Throat, Nose and Ear Hospital, 330 Grays Inn Road, London, WC1X 8DA, UK.,Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, E1 2AT, UK
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14
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Abstract
We argue that, in the pharmaceutical industry, excessive patent duration can deter investments in innovative treatments in favor of me-too drugs. The point is that too-long durations foster incentives to collude to delay investments in R&D for innovative treatments. We give a set of sufficient conditions for which collusion is a subgame-perfect equilibrium; that is, the threat of punishing any deviator is credible. We then show that reducing current duration always breaks down market discipline, and so does an increase in duration for innovative treatments. Optimal patent duration must then be a trade-off between breaking down market discipline and rewarding innovation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Leoni
- Kedge Business School, Domaine de Luminy - BP 921, 13288, Marseille Cedex 9, France.
| | - Alvaro Sandroni
- Department of Managerial Economics and Decision Sciences, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, 2001 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
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