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Paciello F, Pisani A, Rolesi R, Montuoro R, Mohamed-Hizam V, Boni G, Ripoli C, Galli J, Sisto R, Fetoni AR, Grassi C. Oxidative stress and inflammation cause auditory system damage via glial cell activation and dysregulated expression of gap junction proteins in an experimental model of styrene-induced oto/neurotoxicity. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:4. [PMID: 38178142 PMCID: PMC10765700 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02996-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Redox imbalance and inflammation have been proposed as the principal mechanisms of damage in the auditory system, resulting in functional alterations and hearing loss. Microglia and astrocytes play a crucial role in mediating oxidative/inflammatory injury in the central nervous system; however, the role of glial cells in the auditory damage is still elusive. OBJECTIVES Here we investigated glial-mediated responses to toxic injury in peripheral and central structures of the auditory pathway, i.e., the cochlea and the auditory cortex (ACx), in rats exposed to styrene, a volatile compound with well-known oto/neurotoxic properties. METHODS Male adult Wistar rats were treated with styrene (400 mg/kg daily for 3 weeks, 5/days a week). Electrophysiological, morphological, immunofluorescence and molecular analyses were performed in both the cochlea and the ACx to evaluate the mechanisms underlying styrene-induced oto/neurotoxicity in the auditory system. RESULTS We showed that the oto/neurotoxic insult induced by styrene increases oxidative stress in both cochlea and ACx. This was associated with macrophages and glial cell activation, increased expression of inflammatory markers (i.e., pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokine receptors) and alterations in connexin (Cxs) and pannexin (Panx) expression, likely responsible for dysregulation of the microglia/astrocyte network. Specifically, we found downregulation of Cx26 and Cx30 in the cochlea, and high level of Cx43 and Panx1 in the ACx. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, our results provide novel evidence on the role of immune and glial cell activation in the oxidative/inflammatory damage induced by styrene in the auditory system at both peripheral and central levels, also involving alterations of gap junction networks. Our data suggest that targeting glial cells and connexin/pannexin expression might be useful to attenuate oxidative/inflammatory damage in the auditory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiola Paciello
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Pisani
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Rolando Rolesi
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Raffaele Montuoro
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Giammarco Boni
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Cristian Ripoli
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Jacopo Galli
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Renata Sisto
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene, Italian Workers' Compensation Authority (INAIL), Monte Porzio Catone, Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Rita Fetoni
- Department of Neuroscience, Unit of Audiology, Università Degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy.
| | - Claudio Grassi
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
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Schwabenland M, Brück W, Priller J, Stadelmann C, Lassmann H, Prinz M. Analyzing microglial phenotypes across neuropathologies: a practical guide. Acta Neuropathol 2021; 142:923-36. [PMID: 34623511 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-021-02370-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
As extremely sensitive immune cells, microglia act as versatile watchdogs of the central nervous system (CNS) that tightly control tissue homeostasis. Therefore, microglial activation is an early and easily detectable hallmark of virtually all neuropsychiatric, neuro-oncological, neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases. The recent introduction of novel high-throughput technologies and several single-cell methodologies as well as advances in epigenetic analyses helped to identify new microglia expression profiles, enhancer-landscapes and local signaling cues that defined diverse previously unappreciated microglia states in the healthy and diseased CNS. Here, we give an overview on the recent developments in the field of microglia biology and provide a practical guide to analyze disease-associated microglia phenotypes in both the murine and human CNS, on several morphological and molecular levels. Finally, technical limitations, potential pitfalls and data misinterpretations are discussed as well.
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Pohl TT, Jung O, Di Benedetto B, Young LJ, Bosch OJ. Microglia react to partner loss in a sex- and brain site-specific manner in prairie voles. Brain Behav Immun 2021; 96:168-86. [PMID: 34058309 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2021.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Positive social relationships are paramount for the survival of mammals and beneficial for mental and physical health, buffer against stressors, and even promote appropriate immune system functioning. By contrast, impaired social relationships, social isolation, or the loss of a bonded partner lead to aggravated physical and mental health. For example, in humans partner loss is detrimental for the functioning of the immune system and heightens the susceptibility for the development of post-traumatic stress disorders, anxiety disorders, and major depressive disorders. To understand potential underlying mechanisms, the monogamous prairie vole can provide important insights. In the present study, we separated pair bonded male and female prairie voles after five days of co-housing, subjected them to the forced swim test on the fourth day following separation, and studied their microglia morphology and activation in specific brain regions. Partner loss increased passive stress-coping in male, but not female, prairie voles. Moreover, partner loss was associated with microglial priming within the parvocellular region of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) in male prairie voles, whereas in female prairie voles the morphological activation within the whole PVN and the prelimbic cortex (PrL) was decreased, marked by a shift towards ramified microglial morphology. Expression of the immediate early protein c-Fos following partner loss was changed within the PrL of male, but not female, prairie voles. However, the loss of a partner did not affect the investigated aspects of the peripheral immune response. These data suggest a potential sex-dependent mechanism for the regulation of microglial activity following the loss of a partner, which might contribute to the observed differences in passive stress-coping. This study furthers our understanding of the effects of partner loss and its short-term impact on the CNS as well as the CNS immune system and the peripheral innate immune system in both male and female prairie voles.
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Gaspar R, Soares-Cunha C, Domingues AV, Coimbra B, Baptista FI, Pinto L, Ambrósio AF, Rodrigues AJ, Gomes CA. Resilience to stress and sex-specific remodeling of microglia and neuronal morphology in a rat model of anxiety and anhedonia. Neurobiol Stress 2021; 14:100302. [PMID: 33614864 PMCID: PMC7879043 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Prenatal exposure to stress or glucocorticoids (GC) is associated with the appearance of psychiatric diseases later in life. Microglia, the immune cells of the brain, are altered in stress-related disorders. Synthetic GC such as dexamethasone (DEX) are commonly prescribed in case of preterm risk labour in order to promote fetal lung maturation. Recently, we reported long-lasting differences in microglia morphology in a model of in utero exposure to DEX (iuDEX), that presents an anxious phenotype. However, it is still unclear if stress differentially affects iuDEX males and females. In this work, we evaluated how iuDEX animals of both sexes cope with chronic mild stress for 2 weeks. We evaluated emotional behavior and microglia and neuronal morphology in the dorsal hippocampus (dHIP) and nucleus accumbens (NAc), two brain regions involved in emotion-related disorders. We report that males and females prenatally exposed to DEX have better performance in anxiety- and depression-related behavioral tests after chronic stress exposure in adulthood than non-exposed animals. Interestingly, iuDEX animals present sex-dependent changes in microglia morphology in the dHIP (hypertrophy in females) and in the NAc (atrophy in females and hypertrophy in males). After chronic stress, these cells undergo sex-specific morphological remodeling. Paralleled to these alterations in cytoarchitecture of microglia, we report inter-regional differences in dendritic morphology in a sex-specific manner. iuDEX females present fewer complex neurons in the NAc, whereas iuDEX males presented less complex neuronal morphology in the dHIP. Interestingly, these alterations were modified by stress exposure. Our work shows that stressful events during pregnancy can exert a preserved sex-specific effect in adulthood. Although the role of the observed cellular remodeling is still unknown, sex-specific differences in microglia plasticity induced by long-term stress exposure may anticipate differences in drug efficacy in the context of stress-induced anxiety- or depression-related behaviors. iuDEX induces anxiety- and depression-related behavioral in both sexes. iuDEX induces sex dependent fine structural alterations in neurons and microglia morphology in the dHIP and in the NAc. uCMS in combination to iuDEX normalize the behavior as well the morphology of neurons in the NAc. Stressful events during pregnancy can exert a preserved sex-specific effect in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Gaspar
- University of Coimbra, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, Coimbra, Portugal.,University of Coimbra, Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Coimbra, Portugal.,Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra (CACC), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Carina Soares-Cunha
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's -PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Ana Verónica Domingues
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's -PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Bárbara Coimbra
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's -PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Filipa I Baptista
- University of Coimbra, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, Coimbra, Portugal.,University of Coimbra, Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Coimbra, Portugal.,Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra (CACC), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Luísa Pinto
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's -PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - António F Ambrósio
- University of Coimbra, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, Coimbra, Portugal.,University of Coimbra, Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Coimbra, Portugal.,Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra (CACC), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana João Rodrigues
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's -PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Catarina A Gomes
- University of Coimbra, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, Coimbra, Portugal.,University of Coimbra, Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Coimbra, Portugal.,Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra (CACC), Coimbra, Portugal.,University of Coimbra, Faculty of Pharmacy, Coimbra, Portugal
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Shahidehpour RK, Higdon RE, Crawford NG, Neltner JH, Ighodaro ET, Patel E, Price D, Nelson PT, Bachstetter AD. Dystrophic microglia are associated with neurodegenerative disease and not healthy aging in the human brain. Neurobiol Aging 2021; 99:19-27. [PMID: 33422891 PMCID: PMC8293930 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Loss of physiological microglial function may increase the propagation of neurodegenerative diseases. Cellular senescence is a hallmark of aging; thus, we hypothesized age could be a cause of dystrophic microglia. Stereological counts were performed for total microglia, 2 microglia morphologies (hypertrophic and dystrophic) across the human lifespan. An age-associated increase in the number of dystrophic microglia was found in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. However, the increase in dystrophic microglia was proportional to the age-related increase in the total number of microglia. Thus, aging alone does not explain the presence of dystrophic microglia. We next tested if dystrophic microglia could be a disease-associated microglia morphology. Compared with controls, the number of dystrophic microglia was greater in cases with either Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, or limbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy. These results demonstrate that microglia dystrophy, and not hypertrophic microglia, are the disease-associated microglia morphology. Finally, we found strong evidence for iron homeostasis changes in dystrophic microglia, providing a possible molecular mechanism driving the degeneration of microglia in neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan K Shahidehpour
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Rebecca E Higdon
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Nicole G Crawford
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Janna H Neltner
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Division of Neuropathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Eseosa T Ighodaro
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Ela Patel
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Douglas Price
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Peter T Nelson
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Division of Neuropathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Adam D Bachstetter
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
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Espinosa-Fernández V, Mañas-Ojeda A, Pacheco-Herrero M, Castro-Salazar E, Ros-Bernal F, Sánchez-Pérez AM. Early intervention with ABA prevents neuroinflammation and memory impairment in a triple transgenic mice model of Alzheimer´s disease. Behav Brain Res 2019; 374:112106. [PMID: 31356828 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation and insulin resistance in the brain are intimately linked to neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease. Even though traditionally Alzheimer´s disease has been associated to Aβ deposits and hyperphosphorylated Tau intracellular tangles, several studies show that neuroinflammation may be the initial cause that triggers degeneration. Accordingly, a number of natural supplements that improves brain insulin sensitivity and reduce neuroinflammation have been proposed as good choices in the therapeutic prevention of cognitive decline. Further supporting this evidence, we show that phytohormone Abscisic Acid, can prevent memory impairment and neuroinflammation markers in a triple transgenic mouse model, where no peripheral inflammatory changes have occurred. Moreover, our data strongly suggests that early intervention is critical for good prognosis, and that cognitive improvement requires longer treatment than recovering neuroinflammation markers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aroa Mañas-Ojeda
- Department of Medicine, University of Jaume I, Castellón de la Plana, Spain
| | - Mar Pacheco-Herrero
- Department of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, Dominican Republic
| | - Ernestina Castro-Salazar
- Department of Medicine, University of Jaume I, Castellón de la Plana, Spain; Department of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, Dominican Republic
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Wei L, Tokizane K, Konishi H, Yu HR, Kiyama H. Agonists for G-protein-coupled receptor 84 (GPR84) alter cellular morphology and motility but do not induce pro-inflammatory responses in microglia. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:198. [PMID: 28974234 PMCID: PMC5627487 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0970-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Several G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been shown to be important signaling mediators between neurons and glia. In our previous screening for identification of nerve injury-associated GPCRs, G-protein-coupled receptor 84 (GPR84) mRNA showed the highest up-regulation by microglia after nerve injury. GPR84 is a pro-inflammatory receptor of macrophages in a neuropathic pain mouse model, yet its function in resident microglia in the central nervous system is poorly understood. Methods We used endogenous, natural, and surrogate agonists for GPR84 (capric acid, embelin, and 6-OAU, respectively) and examined their effect on mouse primary cultured microglia in vitro. Results 6-n-Octylaminouracil (6-OAU), embelin, and capric acid rapidly induced membrane ruffling and motility in cultured microglia obtained from C57BL/6 mice, although these agonists failed to promote microglial pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. Concomitantly, 6-OAU suppressed forskolin-induced increase of cAMP in cultured microglia. Pertussis toxin, an inhibitor of Gi-coupled signaling, completely suppressed 6-OAU-induced microglial membrane ruffling and motility. In contrast, no 6-OAU-induced microglial membrane ruffling and motility was observed in microglia from DBA/2 mice, a mouse strain that does not express functional GPR84 protein due to endogenous nonsense mutation of the GPR84 gene. Conclusions GPR84 mediated signaling causes microglial motility and membrane ruffling but does not promote pro-inflammatory responses. As GPR84 is a known receptor for medium-chain fatty acids, those released from damaged brain cells may be involved in the enhancement of microglial motility through GPR84 after neuronal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wei
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Nagoya University, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 466-8550, Japan.,National Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Reproductive Health, Chongqing Institute of Population and Family Planning, Chongqing, 400020, China.,College of Basic Medical Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Kyohei Tokizane
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Nagoya University, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 466-8550, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Konishi
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Nagoya University, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 466-8550, Japan
| | - Hua-Rong Yu
- College of Basic Medical Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Hiroshi Kiyama
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Nagoya University, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 466-8550, Japan.
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Walker FR, Beynon SB, Jones KA, Zhao Z, Kongsui R, Cairns M, Nilsson M. Dynamic structural remodelling of microglia in health and disease: a review of the models, the signals and the mechanisms. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 37:1-14. [PMID: 24412599 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Revised: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are unique cells within the central nervous system because of their biophysical independence. As a result of this unusual property the cells must undergo significant structural remodelling in order to engage and connect with other elements within the central nervous system. Efficient remodelling is required for all activities that microglia are involved in ranging from monitoring synaptic information flow through to phagocytosis of tissue debris. Despite the fact that morphological remodelling is a pre-requisite to all microglial activities, relatively little research has been undertaken on the topic. This review examines what is known about how microglia transform themselves during development, under physiological conditions in response to changes in neuronal activity, and under pathological circumstances. Specific attention is given to exploring a variety of models that have been proposed to account for microglial transformation as well as the signals that are known to trigger these transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Rohan Walker
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, University of Newcastle, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.
| | - Sarah B Beynon
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, University of Newcastle, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Kimberley A Jones
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, University of Newcastle, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Zidan Zhao
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, University of Newcastle, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Ratchaniporn Kongsui
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, University of Newcastle, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Murray Cairns
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, University of Newcastle, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Michael Nilsson
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, University of Newcastle, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
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