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Komal Zafar H, Zainab S, Masood M, Sohail M, Shoaib Ahmad Shah S, Karim MR, O'Mullane A, Ostrikov KK, Will G, Wahab MA. Recent Advances on Nitrogen-Doped Porous Carbons Towards Electrochemical Supercapacitor Applications. CHEM REC 2024; 24:e202300161. [PMID: 37582638 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202300161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
Due to ever-increasing global energy demands and dwindling resources, there is a growing need to develop materials that can fulfil the World's pressing energy requirements. Electrochemical energy storage devices have gained significant interest due to their exceptional storage properties, where the electrode material is a crucial determinant of device performance. Hence, it is essential to develop 3-D hierarchical materials at low cost with precisely controlled porosity and composition to achieve high energy storage capabilities. After presenting the brief updates on porous carbons (PCs), then this review will focus on the nitrogen (N) doped porous carbon materials (NPC) for electrochemical supercapacitors as the NPCs play a vital role in supercapacitor applications in the field of energy storage. Therefore, this review highlights recent advances in NPCs, including developments in the synthesis of NPCs that have created new methods for controlling their morphology, composition, and pore structure, which can significantly enhance their electrochemical performance. The investigated N-doped materials a wide range of specific surface areas, ranging from 181.5 to 3709 m2 g-1 , signifies a substantial increase in the available electrochemically active surface area, which is crucial for efficient energy storage. Moreover, these materials display notable specific capacitance values, ranging from 58.7 to 754.4 F g-1 , highlighting their remarkable capability to effectively store electrical energy. The outstanding electrochemical performance of these materials is attributed to the synergy between heteroatoms, particularly N, and the carbon framework in N-doped porous carbons. This synergy brings about several beneficial effects including, enhanced pseudo-capacitance, improved electrical conductivity, and increased electrochemically active surface area. As a result, these materials emerge as promising candidates for high-performance supercapacitor electrodes. The challenges and outlook in NPCs for supercapacitor applications are also presented. Overall, this review will provide valuable insights for researchers in electrochemical energy storage and offers a basis for fabricating highly effective and feasible supercapacitor electrodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hafiza Komal Zafar
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Sara Zainab
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Maria Masood
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Manzar Sohail
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Syed Shoaib Ahmad Shah
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Mohammad R Karim
- Center of Excellence for Research in Engineering Materials (CEREM), Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR), College of Engineering, King Saud University, P. O. Box 800, Riyadh, 11421, Saudi Arabia
- K.A. CARE Energy Research and Innovation Center, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Anthony O'Mullane
- School of Chemistry and Physics and Centre for Materials Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Kostya Ken Ostrikov
- School of Chemistry and Physics and Centre for Materials Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Geoffrey Will
- Energy and Process Engineering Laboratory, School of Mechanical, Medical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Md A Wahab
- Energy and Process Engineering Laboratory, School of Mechanical, Medical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
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2
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Zhou H, Li P, Zhang E, Kunigkeit J, Zhou X, Haase K, Rita Ortega Vega M, Wang S, Xu X, Grothe J, Mannsfeld SCB, Brunner E, Kaneko K, Kaskel S. General Design Concepts for CAPodes as Ionologic Devices. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202305397. [PMID: 37394690 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202305397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Capacitive analogues of semiconductor diodes (CAPodes) present a new avenue for energy-efficient and nature-inspired next-generation computing devices. Here, we disclose the generalized concept for bias-direction-adjustable n- and p-CAPodes based on selective ion sieving. Controllable-unidirectional ion flux is realized by blocking electrolyte ions from entering sub-nanometer pores. The resulting CAPodes exhibit charge-storage characteristics with a high rectification ratio (96.29 %). The enhancement of capacitance is attributed to the high surface area and porosity of an omnisorbing carbon as counter electrode. Furthermore, we demonstrate the use of an integrated device in a logic gate circuit architecture to implement logic operations ('OR', 'AND'). This work demonstrates CAPodes as a generalized concept to achieve p-n and n-p analogue junctions based on selective ion electrosorption, provides a comprehensive understanding and highlights applications of ion-based diodes in ionologic architectures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanfeng Zhou
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstrasse 66, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Panlong Li
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstrasse 66, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - En Zhang
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstrasse 66, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Jonas Kunigkeit
- Bioanalytical Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstrasse 66, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Xiongjun Zhou
- Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Jingming South 727, Kunming, 650093, China
| | - Katherina Haase
- Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering & Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed), Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtzstraße 18, 01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Maria Rita Ortega Vega
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstrasse 66, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Shuwen Wang
- Research Initiative for Supra-Materials, Shinshu University, 4-17-1, Wakasato, 390-8621, Nagano-City, Japan
| | - Xiaosa Xu
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstrasse 66, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Julia Grothe
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstrasse 66, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefan C B Mannsfeld
- Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering & Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed), Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtzstraße 18, 01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Eike Brunner
- Bioanalytical Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstrasse 66, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Katsumi Kaneko
- Research Initiative for Supra-Materials, Shinshu University, 4-17-1, Wakasato, 390-8621, Nagano-City, Japan
| | - Stefan Kaskel
- Inorganic Chemistry I, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstrasse 66, 01069, Dresden, Germany
- Fraunhofer IWS, Winterbergstrasse 28, 01277, Dresden, Germany
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Liu L, Kang L, Chutia A, Feng J, Michalska M, Ferrer P, Grinter DC, Held G, Tan Y, Zhao F, Guo F, Hopkinson DG, Allen CS, Hou Y, Gu J, Papakonstantinou I, Shearing PR, Brett DJL, Parkin IP, He G. Spectroscopic Identification of Active Sites of Oxygen-Doped Carbon for Selective Oxygen Reduction to Hydrogen Peroxide. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202303525. [PMID: 36929681 PMCID: PMC10947142 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202303525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
The electrochemical synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) via a two-electron (2 e- ) oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) process provides a promising alternative to replace the energy-intensive anthraquinone process. Herein, we develop a facile template-protected strategy to synthesize a highly active quinone-rich porous carbon catalyst for H2 O2 electrochemical production. The optimized PCC900 material exhibits remarkable activity and selectivity, of which the onset potential reaches 0.83 V vs. reversible hydrogen electrode in 0.1 M KOH and the H2 O2 selectivity is over 95 % in a wide potential range. Comprehensive synchrotron-based near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy combined with electrocatalytic characterizations reveals the positive correlation between quinone content and 2 e- ORR performance. The effectiveness of chair-form quinone groups as the most efficient active sites is highlighted by the molecule-mimic strategy and theoretical analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longxiang Liu
- Christopher Ingold LaboratoryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity College London20 Gordon StreetLondonWC1H 0AJUK
| | - Liqun Kang
- Department of Inorganic SpectroscopyMax-Planck-Institute for Chemical Energy ConversionStiftstr. 34–3645470Mülheim an der RuhrGermany
| | | | - Jianrui Feng
- Christopher Ingold LaboratoryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity College London20 Gordon StreetLondonWC1H 0AJUK
| | - Martyna Michalska
- Photonic Innovations LabDepartment of Electronic & Electrical EngineeringUniversity College LondonTorrington PlaceLondonWC1E 7JEUK
| | - Pilar Ferrer
- Diamond Light SourceRutherford Appleton LaboratoryHarwell, DidcotOX11 0DEUK
| | - David C. Grinter
- Diamond Light SourceRutherford Appleton LaboratoryHarwell, DidcotOX11 0DEUK
| | - Georg Held
- Diamond Light SourceRutherford Appleton LaboratoryHarwell, DidcotOX11 0DEUK
| | - Yeshu Tan
- Christopher Ingold LaboratoryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity College London20 Gordon StreetLondonWC1H 0AJUK
| | - Fangjia Zhao
- Christopher Ingold LaboratoryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity College London20 Gordon StreetLondonWC1H 0AJUK
| | - Fei Guo
- Christopher Ingold LaboratoryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity College London20 Gordon StreetLondonWC1H 0AJUK
| | - David G. Hopkinson
- electron Physical Science Imaging CentreRutherford Appleton LaboratoryHarwell, DidcotOX11 0DEUK
| | - Christopher S. Allen
- electron Physical Science Imaging CentreRutherford Appleton LaboratoryHarwell, DidcotOX11 0DEUK
- Department of MaterialsUniversity of OxfordParks RoadOxfordOX1 3PHUK
| | - Yanbei Hou
- HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate LaboratorySchool of Mechanical and AerospaceNanyang Technological University50 Nanyang AvenueSingapore639798Singapore
| | - Junwen Gu
- Christopher Ingold LaboratoryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity College London20 Gordon StreetLondonWC1H 0AJUK
| | - Ioannis Papakonstantinou
- Photonic Innovations LabDepartment of Electronic & Electrical EngineeringUniversity College LondonTorrington PlaceLondonWC1E 7JEUK
| | - Paul R. Shearing
- Electrochemical Innovation LabDepartment of Chemical EngineeringUniversity College LondonLondonWC1E 7JEUK
| | - Dan J. L. Brett
- Electrochemical Innovation LabDepartment of Chemical EngineeringUniversity College LondonLondonWC1E 7JEUK
| | - Ivan P. Parkin
- Christopher Ingold LaboratoryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity College London20 Gordon StreetLondonWC1H 0AJUK
| | - Guanjie He
- Christopher Ingold LaboratoryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity College London20 Gordon StreetLondonWC1H 0AJUK
- Electrochemical Innovation LabDepartment of Chemical EngineeringUniversity College LondonLondonWC1E 7JEUK
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Fan X, Huang K, Chen L, You H, Yao M, Jiang H, Zhang L, Lian C, Gao X, Li C. High Power- and Energy-Density Supercapacitors through the Chlorine Respiration Mechanism. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202215342. [PMID: 36404275 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202215342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Supercapacitor represents an important electrical energy storage technology with high-power performance and superior cyclability. However, currently commercialized supercapacitors still suffer limited energy densities. Here we report an unprecedentedly respiring supercapacitor with chlorine gas iteratively re-inspires in porous carbon materials, that improves the energy density by orders of magnitude. Both electrochemical results and theoretical calculations show that porous carbon with pore size around 3 nm delivers the best chlorine evolution and adsorption performance. The respiring supercapacitor with multi-wall carbon nanotube as the cathode and NaTi2 (PO4 )3 as the anode can store specific energy of 33 Wh kg-1 with negligible capacity loss over 30 000 cycles. The energy density can be further improved to 53 Wh kg-1 by replacing NaTi2 (PO4 )3 with zinc anode. Furthermore, thanks to the extraordinary reaction kinetics of chlorine gas, this respiring supercapacitor performs an extremely high-power density of 50 000 W kg-1 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotong Fan
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Kai Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Long Chen
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Haipeng You
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Menglei Yao
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Hao Jiang
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Ling Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Cheng Lian
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Xiangwen Gao
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PH, UK
| | - Chunzhong Li
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science & Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
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5
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Li P, Bräuniger Y, Kunigkeit J, Zhou H, Ortega Vega MR, Zhang E, Grothe J, Brunner E, Kaskel S. Bioactive Ion-Based Switchable Supercapacitors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202212250. [PMID: 36260635 PMCID: PMC10100445 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202212250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Switchable supercapacitors (SCs) enable a reversible electrically-driven uptake/release of bioactive ions by polarizing porous carbon electrodes. Herein we demonstrate the first example of a bioactive ion-based switchable supercapacitor. Based on choline chloride and porous carbons we unravel the mechanism of physisorption vs. electrosorption by nuclear magnetic resonance, Raman, and impedance spectroscopy. Weak physisorption facilitates electrically-driven electrolyte depletion enabling the controllable uptake/release of electrolyte ions. A new 4-terminal device is proposed, with a main capacitor and a detective capacitor for monitoring bioactive ion adsorption in situ. Ion-concentration control in printed choline-based switchable SCs realizes switching down to 8.3 % residual capacitance. The exploration of adsorption mechanisms in printable microdevices will open an avenue of manipulating bioactive ions for the application of drug delivery, neuromodulation, or neuromorphic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panlong Li
- Inorganic Chemistry ITechnische Universität DresdenBergstrasse 6601069DresdenGermany
| | - Yannik Bräuniger
- Inorganic Chemistry ITechnische Universität DresdenBergstrasse 6601069DresdenGermany
| | - Jonas Kunigkeit
- Bioanalytical ChemistryTechnische Universität DresdenBergstrasse 6601069DresdenGermany
| | - Hanfeng Zhou
- Inorganic Chemistry ITechnische Universität DresdenBergstrasse 6601069DresdenGermany
| | | | - En Zhang
- Inorganic Chemistry ITechnische Universität DresdenBergstrasse 6601069DresdenGermany
| | - Julia Grothe
- Inorganic Chemistry ITechnische Universität DresdenBergstrasse 6601069DresdenGermany
| | - Eike Brunner
- Bioanalytical ChemistryTechnische Universität DresdenBergstrasse 6601069DresdenGermany
| | - Stefan Kaskel
- Inorganic Chemistry ITechnische Universität DresdenBergstrasse 6601069DresdenGermany
- Fraunhofer IWSWinterbergstrasse 2801277DresdenGermany
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Sun Y, Zhang H, Yuan N, Ge Y, Dai Y, Yang Z, Lu L. Phosphorylated biomass-derived porous carbon material for efficient removal of U(VI) in wastewater. J Hazard Mater 2021; 413:125282. [PMID: 33582468 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A simple strategy to prepare cost-effective adsorbent materials for the removal of U(VI) in radioactive wastewater is of great significance to environmental protection. Here, activated orange peel was used as a precursor for the synthesis of biomass charcoal, and then a phosphorylated honeycomb-like porous carbon (HLPC-PO4) material was prepared through simple phosphorylation modification. FT-IR and XPS showed that P-O-C, P-C, and P˭O bonds appeared in HLPC-PO4, indicating that the phosphorylation process is mainly the reaction of C-O bonds on the surface of the material with -PO4. The results of the batch experiments showed that the uptake equilibrium of HLPC-PO4 to U(VI) occurred within 20 min, and the kinetic simulation showed that the process was monolayer chemical adsorption. Interestingly, the maximum U(VI) uptake capacity of HLPC-PO4 at T = 298.15 K and pH = 6.0 was 552.6 mg/g, which was more than 3 times that of HLPC. In addition, HLPC-PO4 showed an adsorption selectivity of 70.1% for U(VI). After 5 cycles, HLPC-PO4 maintained its original adsorption capacity of 90.5%. The adsorption mechanism can be explained as the complexation of U(VI) with P-O and P˭O on the surface of the adsorbent, confirming the strong bonding ability of -PO4 to U(VI).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanbing Sun
- Sino-French Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong 519082, PR China
| | - Haoyan Zhang
- The Fourth Research and Design Engineering Institute of China National Nuclear Corporation, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050022, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Nuclear Resources and Environment, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China
| | - Nan Yuan
- Sino-French Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong 519082, PR China
| | - Yulin Ge
- Sino-French Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong 519082, PR China
| | - Ying Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Nuclear Resources and Environment, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China
| | - Zhen Yang
- Sino-French Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong 519082, PR China.
| | - Liang Lu
- Sino-French Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong 519082, PR China.
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Tsubota T, Nagata D, Kamimura S, Ohno T. Partial Delignification as Pretreatment for Nano porous Carbon Material from Biomass. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 2017; 17:815-820. [PMID: 29634169 DOI: 10.1166/jnn.2017.12534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
For the pretreatment in order to nano prepare porous carbon from biomass such as bamboo, a mixture of acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide was used for the partial delignification of bamboo. The pretreatment should be effective for the removal of lignin because the lignin percentage after the pretreatment depended on the treatment time and the treatment temperature. For the concentration of the mixture used for the pretreatment in this study, a small amount of lignin (ca. 2 wt%) remained even after a sufficiently-long treatment time. The BET specific surface area of the carbon material prepared by the heat treatment at 800 degrees C for 1 h under flowing N2 was related to the pretreatment conditions, and the specific surface areas of the samples were found to be related to the lignin percentage. The removal of lignin while maintaining the microstructure derived from plant tissue could be the reason for the local maximum of the specific surface area at ca. 5% of the lignin.
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