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Pandey N, Mandal M, Samanta D, Mukherjee G, Dutta G. A nanobody based ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor for the detection of soluble CTLA-4 -A candidate biomarker for cancer development and progression. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 242:115733. [PMID: 37820555 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
A soluble isoform of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) has been found in the serum of healthy individuals and alterations in its expression level have been linked with the development and progression of various cancers. Conventionally, soluble CTLA-4 (sCTLA-4) has been quantified by techniques such as ELISA, western blot, and flow cytometry, which however are time-consuming, highly expensive and require large sample volumes. Therefore, rapid, cost-effective and real-time monitoring of soluble CTLA-4 levels is much needed to facilitate timely diagnosis of a worsening disease and help patient selection for immunotherapeutic interventions in cancer. Here, for the first time, we report an ultrasensitive, highly selective electrochemical nanobody (NAb) based biosensor for the quantitative detection of soluble CTLA-4 employing poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) and gold nanoparticles modified electrode with attomole sensitivity. Incorporating nanomaterials with conductive polymers enhances the sensitivity of the electrochemical biosensor, while the nanobody's stability, specificity and ease of production make it a suitable choice as a bioreceptor. The proposed NAb-based sensor can detect sCTLA-4 from pure recombinant protein in a wide concentration range of 100 ag mL-1- 500 μg mL-1, with a limit of detection of 1.19 ag mL-1 (+3σ of the blank signal). The sensor's relative standard deviation for reproducibility is less than 0.4% and has effective real sample analytics for cell culture supernatant with no significant difference with pure recombinant protein (p < 0.05). Our proposed nanobody based sensor exhibits stability for up to 2 weeks (<3% variation). Moreover, this nanobody-based sensor presents a future opportunity for quantitative, ultrasensitive, and economical biosensor development that can be adapted to monitor the immune landscape of cancer patients to provide a larger therapeutic window.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nidhi Pandey
- Immunology and Inflammation Research Lab, School of Medical Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Mukti Mandal
- NanoBiosensors and Biodevices Lab, School of Medical Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Dibyendu Samanta
- School of Bio Science, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Gayatri Mukherjee
- Immunology and Inflammation Research Lab, School of Medical Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India.
| | - Gorachand Dutta
- NanoBiosensors and Biodevices Lab, School of Medical Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India.
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Tanizaki J, Kuroda H, Yokoyama T, Takahama M, Shoda H, Nakamura A, Kitamura Y, Mamesaya N, Kadota Y, Sawa K, Okishio K, Okada M, Suminaka C, Noda K, Sakai K, Chiba Y, Nishio K, Chamoto K, Honjo T, Yamamoto N, Nakagawa K, Hayashi H. Lack of Association of Plasma Levels of Soluble Programmed Cell Death Protein 1, Programmed Death-Ligand 1, and CTLA-4 With Survival for Stage II to IIIA NSCLC After Complete Resection and Adjuvant Chemotherapy. JTO Clin Res Rep 2023; 4:100590. [PMID: 38029041 PMCID: PMC10679776 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtocrr.2023.100590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Perioperative treatment in NSCLC has gained marked attention with the introduction of immune checkpoint inhibitors. Such a paradigm shift has given us additional opportunities to evaluate potential biomarkers in patients with these curable disease stages. Methods This study (WJOG12319LTR) was designed as a biomarker study to evaluate whether soluble immune markers were prognostic or predictive on relapse-free survival in patients with stage II to IIIA NSCLC who underwent complete resection and adjuvant chemotherapy with cisplatin plus S-1, which is an oral fluoropyrimidine formulation that consists of tegafur, gimeracil, and oteracil, or S-1 alone in the previous WJOG4107 study. Archived plasma samples were assayed for soluble (s) forms of programmed cell death protein 1 (sPD-1), programmed death-ligand 1(sPD-L1), and CTLA-4 (sCTLA-4) with the highly sensitive HISCL system. Using time-dependent receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, the area under the curves were derived and optimal cutoff values were determined. Using the cutoff values, whether the marker was prognostic or predictive was assessed by survival analysis. Results A total of 150 patients were included in the study. The time-dependent receiver operating characteristics analysis revealed that the area under the curves for sPD-1, sPD-L1, and sCTLA-4 were 0.54, 0.51, and 0.58, respectively. The survival analysis did not reject that hazard ratios were 1 in terms of the soluble immune marker and the treatment-marker interaction for all three markers. Conclusions There was no proof that circulating concentrations of sPD-1, sPD-L1, and sCTLA-4 were prognostic or predictive factors of the outcome for adjuvant chemotherapy after complete resection in patients with NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junko Tanizaki
- Department of Medical Oncology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Kuroda
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Aichi Cancer Center Hospital, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Toshihide Yokoyama
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Kurashiki Central Hospital, Kurashiki, Japan
| | - Makoto Takahama
- Department of General Thoracic Surgery, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiroyasu Shoda
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Hiroshima City Hiroshima Citizens Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Atsushi Nakamura
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Sendai Kousei Hospital, Sendai, Japan
| | | | - Nobuaki Mamesaya
- Division of Thoracic Oncology, Shizuoka Cancer Center, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Yoshihisa Kadota
- Department of General Thoracic Surgery, Osaka Habikino Medical Center, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kenji Sawa
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kyoichi Okishio
- Department of Thoracic Oncology, National Hospital Organization Kinki-Chuo Chest Medical Center, Sakai, Osaka, Japan
| | - Morihito Okada
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | | | - Kenta Noda
- Central Research Laboratories, Sysmex Corporation, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Kazuko Sakai
- Department of Genome Biology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yasutaka Chiba
- Clinical Research Center, Kindai University Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kazuto Nishio
- Department of Genome Biology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kenji Chamoto
- Department of Immunology and Genomic Medicine, Center for Cancer Immunotherapy and Immunobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- Department of Immuno-Oncology PDT, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tasuku Honjo
- Department of Immunology and Genomic Medicine, Center for Cancer Immunotherapy and Immunobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | - Kazuhiko Nakagawa
- Department of Medical Oncology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hidetoshi Hayashi
- Department of Medical Oncology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
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Kawakami H, Sunakawa Y, Inoue E, Matoba R, Noda K, Sato T, Suminaka C, Yamaki M, Sakamoto Y, Kawabata R, Ishiguro A, Akamaru Y, Kito Y, Yabusaki H, Matsuyama J, Takahashi M, Makiyama A, Hayashi H, Chamoto K, Honjo T, Nakagawa K, Ichikawa W, Fujii M. Soluble programmed cell death ligand 1 predicts prognosis for gastric cancer patients treated with nivolumab: Blood-based biomarker analysis for the DELIVER trial. Eur J Cancer 2023; 184:10-20. [PMID: 36889037 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2023.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The clinical value of soluble forms of programmed cell death-1 (sPD-1), PD ligand 1 (sPD-L1) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated protein-4 (sCTLA-4) for gastric cancer (GC) patients treated with nivolumab monotherapy has remained unknown. METHODS Blood samples collected before nivolumab treatment from 439 GC patients enrolled in the DELIVER (Japan Clinical Cancer Research Organisation GC-08) trial were analysed for sPD-1, sPD-L1 and sCTLA-4. Corresponding baseline clinical data were also retrieved. RESULTS Higher plasma levels of sPD-1 (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.27, p = 0.020), sPD-L1 (HR = 1.86, p < 0.001) and sCTLA-4 (HR = 1.33, p = 0.008) were significantly associated with shorter overall survival (OS), whereas only higher sPD-L1 levels was significantly associated with shorter progression-free survival (HR = 1.30, p = 0.008). The sPD-L1 concentration was significantly associated with the Glasgow prognostic score (GPS) (p < 0.001), but both sPD-L1 (HR = 1.67, p < 0.001) and GPS (HR = 1.39, p = 0.009 for GPS 0 versus 1; HR = 1.95, p < 0.001 for GPS 0 versus 2) were independently associated with OS. Patients with a GPS of 0 and low sPD-L1 thus showed the longest OS (median, 12.0 months) and those with a GPS of 2 and high sPD-L1 showed the shortest OS (median, 3.1 months), yielding a HR of 3.69 (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION Baseline sPD-L1 levels have the potential to predict survival for advanced GC patients treated with nivolumab, with the prognostic accuracy of sPD-L1 being improved by its combination with GPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisato Kawakami
- Department of Medical Oncology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka-sayama, Osaka 589-8511, Japan.
| | - Yu Sunakawa
- Department of Clinical Oncology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511, Japan
| | - Eisuke Inoue
- Showa University Research Administration Center, Showa University, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Ryo Matoba
- DNA Chip Research Inc., Tokyo 105-0022, Japan
| | - Kenta Noda
- Sysmex Corporation, Kobe, Hyogo 651-2271, Japan
| | | | | | - Mami Yamaki
- Sysmex Corporation, Kobe, Hyogo 651-2271, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Sakamoto
- Department of Medical Oncology, Osaki Citizen Hospital, Osaki, Miyagi 989-6183, Japan
| | - Ryohei Kawabata
- Department of Surgery, Osaka Rosai Hospital, Sakai, Osaka 591-8025, Japan
| | - Atsushi Ishiguro
- Department of Medical Oncology, Teine Keijinkai Hospital, Sapporo, Hokkaido 006-8555, Japan
| | - Yusuke Akamaru
- Department of Surgery, Ikeda City Hospital, Ikeda, Osaka 563-8510, Japan
| | - Yosuke Kito
- Department of Medical Oncology, Ishikawa Prefectural Central Hospital, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8530, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yabusaki
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Niigata Cancer Center Hospital, Niigata, Niigata 951-8566, Japan
| | - Jin Matsuyama
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Higashiosaka City Medical Center, Higashiosaka, Osaka 578-8588, Japan
| | - Masazumi Takahashi
- Division of Gastroenterological Surgery, Yokohama Municipal Citizen's Hospital, Yokohama, Kanagawa 221-0855, Japan
| | - Akitaka Makiyama
- Cancer Center, Gifu University Hospital, Gifu, Gifu 501-1194, Japan
| | - Hidetoshi Hayashi
- Department of Medical Oncology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka-sayama, Osaka 589-8511, Japan
| | - Kenji Chamoto
- Department of Immunology and Genomic Medicine, Center for Cancer Immunotherapy and Immunobiology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Tasuku Honjo
- Department of Immunology and Genomic Medicine, Center for Cancer Immunotherapy and Immunobiology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Nakagawa
- Department of Medical Oncology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka-sayama, Osaka 589-8511, Japan
| | - Wataru Ichikawa
- Division of Medical Oncology, Showa University Fujigaoka Hospital, Yokohama, Kanagawa 227-8501, Japan
| | - Masashi Fujii
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan
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Pistillo MP, Fontana V, Morabito A, Dozin B, Laurent S, Carosio R, Banelli B, Ferrero F, Spano L, Tanda E, Ferrucci PF, Martinoli C, Cocorocchio E, Guida M, Tommasi S, De Galitiis F, Pagani E, Antonini Cappellini GC, Marchetti P, Quaglino P, Fava P, Osella-Abate S, Ascierto PA, Capone M, Simeone E, Romani M, Spagnolo F, Queirolo P. Soluble CTLA-4 as a favorable predictive biomarker in metastatic melanoma patients treated with ipilimumab: an Italian melanoma intergroup study. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2019; 68:97-107. [PMID: 30311027 PMCID: PMC11028053 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-018-2258-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
CTLA-4 blockade by means of ipilimumab (IPI) potentiates the immune response and improves overall survival (OS) in a minority of metastatic melanoma (MM) patients. We investigated the role of soluble CTLA-4 (sCTLA-4) as a possible biomarker for identifying this subset of patients. sCTLA-4 levels were analyzed at baseline in sera from 113 IPI-treated MM patients by ELISA, and the median value (200 pg/ml) was used to create two equally sized subgroups. Associations of sCTLA-4 with best overall response (BOR) to IPI and immune-related adverse events (irAEs) were evaluated through logistic regression. Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression methods were used to analyze OS. A remarkable association between sCTLA-4 levels and BOR was found. Specifically, the proportion of patients with sCTLA-4 > 200 pg/ml in irSD or irPD (immune-related stable or progressive disease) was, respectively, 80% (OR = 0.23; 95%CL = 0.03-1.88) and 89% (OR = 0.11; 95%CL = 0.02-0.71) and was lower than that observed among patients in irCR/irPR (immune-related complete/partial response). sCTLA-4 levels increased during IPI treatment, since the proportion of patients showing sCTLA > 200 pg/ml after 3 cycles was 4 times higher (OR = 4.41, 95%CL = 1.02-19.1) than that after 1 cycle. Moreover, a significantly lower death rate was estimated for patients with sCTLA-4 > 200 pg/ml (HR = 0.61, 95%CL = 0.39-0.98). Higher baseline sCTLA-4 levels were also associated with the onset of any irAE (p value = 0.029), in particular irAEs of the digestive tract (p value = 0.041). In conclusion, our results suggest that high sCTLA-4 serum levels might predict favorable clinical outcome and higher risk of irAEs in IPI-treated MM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pia Pistillo
- Unit of Tumor Epigenetics, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132, Genoa, Italy.
| | - Vincenzo Fontana
- Unit of Clinical Epidemiology, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Anna Morabito
- Unit of Tumor Epigenetics, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132, Genoa, Italy
| | - Beatrice Dozin
- Unit of Clinical Epidemiology, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Stefania Laurent
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Roberta Carosio
- Unit of Tumor Epigenetics, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132, Genoa, Italy
| | - Barbara Banelli
- Unit of Tumor Epigenetics, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132, Genoa, Italy
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Francesca Ferrero
- Department of Medical Oncology, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Laura Spano
- Department of Medical Oncology, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Enrica Tanda
- Department of Medical Oncology, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | | | - Chiara Martinoli
- Oncology of Melanoma Unit, European Institute of Oncology, Milan, Italy
- iTeos Therapeutics, Gosselies, Belgium
| | | | - Michele Guida
- Department of Medical Oncology and Molecular Genetics Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Tumori "Giovanni Paolo II", Bari, Italy
| | - Stefania Tommasi
- Department of Medical Oncology and Molecular Genetics Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Tumori "Giovanni Paolo II", Bari, Italy
| | | | - Elena Pagani
- Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata IDI-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Paolo Marchetti
- Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata IDI-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
- Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Pietro Quaglino
- Department of Medical Sciences, Dermatologic Clinic, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Paolo Fava
- Department of Medical Sciences, Dermatologic Clinic, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Simona Osella-Abate
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Surgical Pathology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Paolo Antonio Ascierto
- Melanoma, Cancer Immunotherapy and Innovative Therapy Unit, Istituto Nazionale Tumori Fondazione'G. Pascale', Naples, Italy
| | - Mariaelena Capone
- Melanoma, Cancer Immunotherapy and Innovative Therapy Unit, Istituto Nazionale Tumori Fondazione'G. Pascale', Naples, Italy
| | - Ester Simeone
- Melanoma, Cancer Immunotherapy and Innovative Therapy Unit, Istituto Nazionale Tumori Fondazione'G. Pascale', Naples, Italy
| | - Massimo Romani
- Unit of Tumor Epigenetics, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi, 10, 16132, Genoa, Italy
| | - Francesco Spagnolo
- Department of Medical Oncology, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Paola Queirolo
- Department of Medical Oncology, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
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Dahal LN, Basu N, Youssef H, Khanolkar RC, Barker RN, Erwig LP, Ward FJ. Immunoregulatory soluble CTLA-4 modifies effector T-cell responses in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 2016; 18:180. [PMID: 27487771 PMCID: PMC4973056 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-016-1075-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The inhibitory CTLA-4 molecule is a crucial regulator of immune responses and a target for therapeutic intervention in both autoimmunity and cancer. In particular, CTLA-4 is important in controlling antigen-specific immunity, including responses to autoantigens associated with autoimmune disease. Here, we investigate cytokine responses to a range of lupus-associated autoantigens and assess whether the alternatively spliced isoform of CTLA-4, soluble CTLA-4 (sCTLA-4), contributes to immune regulation of autoantigen-specific immunity in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Methods The cell culture supernatant production of sCTLA-4 as well as the cytokines IL-10, IFN-γ, and IL-17 from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from lupus patients and age- and sex-matched healthy volunteer donors were measured in response to previously identified histone and small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) autoantigen-derived peptides (H391-105, H471-93, and U170K131-151) by ELISA. We also examined the functional contribution of sCTLA-4 to immune regulation in the context of these autoantigenic peptides following blockade of sCTLA-4 with a selective anti-sCTLA-4 monoclonal antibody, JMW-3B3. Results We identified responses to autoantigenic peptides, which revealed qualitative differences in cytokine (IL-10, IL-17, and IFN-γ) profiles between SLE patients and healthy donors. PBMC from healthy donors responded to each of the lupus peptides by secreting IFN-γ and IL-17, but PBMC from SLE patients produced IL-10. Although we did not observe differences in the levels of serum or PBMC culture supernatant sCTLA-4 in either cohort, blockade of sCTLA-4 in PBMC cultures responding to antigen enhanced the cytokine profiles associated with each group. Conclusion The results show that lupus autoantigen-derived peptides display varied immunogenicity in lupus versus healthy volunteer donors, while sCTLA-4 acts to regulate the T-cell activity independently of response profile. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13075-016-1075-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lekh N Dahal
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, UK.,Antibody and Vaccine Group, Cancer Sciences Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK
| | - Neil Basu
- Department of Rheumatology, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Hazem Youssef
- Department of Rheumatology, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Rahul C Khanolkar
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Robert N Barker
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Lars P Erwig
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, UK.,Renal Unit, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK.,GSK, Experimental Medicine Unit, Immunoinflammation TA, Medicines Research Centre, Stevenage, Herts, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Frank J Ward
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, UK.
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