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Rodrigues C, Ismael S, Castela I, Barreiros-Mota I, Almeida MJ, Santos GM, Calhau C, Rocha JC, Faria A, Araújo JR. Trimethylamine increases intestinal fatty acid absorption: in vitro studies in a Caco-2 cell culture system. J Nutr Sci 2023; 12:e108. [PMID: 37964979 PMCID: PMC10641700 DOI: 10.1017/jns.2023.91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Although elevated blood levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) have been associated with atherosclerosis development in humans, the role of its gut microbiota-derived precursor, TMA, in this process has not been yet deciphered. Taking this into account, and the fact that increased intestinal fatty acid absorption contributes to atherosclerosis onset and progression, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of TMA on fatty acid absorption in a cell line that mimics human enterocytes. Caco-2 cells were treated with TMA 250 μM for 24 h. Fatty acid absorption was assessed by measuring the apical-to-basolateral transport and the intracellular levels of BODIPY-C12, a fluorescently labelled fatty acid analogue. Gene expression of the main intestinal fatty acid transporters was evaluated by real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR. Compared to control conditions, TMA increased, in a time-dependent manner and by 20-50 %, the apical-to-basolateral transport and intracellular levels of BODIPY-C12 fatty acid in Caco-2 cells. Fatty acid transport protein 4 (FATP4) and fatty acid translocase (FAT)/CD36 gene expression were not stimulated by TMA, suggesting that TMA-induced increase in fatty acid transport may be mediated by an increase in FAT/CD36 and/or FATP4 activity and/or fatty acid passive transport. This study demonstrated that TMA increases the intestinal absorption of fatty acids. Future studies are necessary to confirm if this may constitute a novel mechanism that partially explains the existing positive association between the consumption of a diet rich in TMA sources (e.g. red meat) and the increased risk of atherosclerotic diseases.
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Key Words
- Caco-2 cells
- EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
- Enterocytes
- F, forward
- FABP, fatty acid-binding protein
- FABPpm, plasma membrane fatty acid-binding protein
- FAT/CD36, fatty acid translocase
- FATP4, fatty acid transport protein 4
- FBS, foetal bovine serum
- FSA, fluorescein sulphonic acid
- Fatty acid absorption
- HPRT, hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase
- MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethyl thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide
- PBS, phosphate-buffered saline
- R, reverse
- TG, triacylglycerol
- TMA, trimethylamine
- TMAO, trimethylamine N-oxide
- Trimethylamine
- qRT-PCR, real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
- sem, standard error of the mean
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Rodrigues
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CHRC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Shámila Ismael
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CHRC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CINTESIS@RISE, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Inês Castela
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CHRC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CINTESIS@RISE, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Inês Barreiros-Mota
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CHRC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria João Almeida
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CHRC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Gilberto Maia Santos
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CHRC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Conceição Calhau
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CINTESIS@RISE, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Unidade Universitária Lifestyle Medicine José de Mello Saúde by NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Júlio César Rocha
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CINTESIS@RISE, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Reference Centre of Inherited Metabolic Diseases, Centro Hospitalar Universitário de Lisboa Central, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana Faria
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CHRC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CINTESIS@RISE, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - João R. Araújo
- Nutrition & Metabolism, CINTESIS@RISE, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
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Wichitnithad W, Nantaphol S, Noppakhunsomboon K, Rojsitthisak P. An update on the current status and prospects of nitrosation pathways and possible root causes of nitrosamine formation in various pharmaceuticals. Saudi Pharm J 2023; 31:295-311. [PMID: 36942272 PMCID: PMC10023554 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsps.2022.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last two years, global regulatory authorities have raised safety concerns on nitrosamine contamination in several drug classes, including angiotensin II receptor antagonists, histamine-2 receptor antagonists, antimicrobial agents, and antidiabetic drugs. To avoid carcinogenic and mutagenic effects in patients relying on these medications, authorities have established specific guidelines in risk assessment scenarios and proposed control limits for nitrosamine impurities in pharmaceuticals. In this review, nitrosation pathways and possible root causes of nitrosamine formation in pharmaceuticals are discussed. The control limits of nitrosamine impurities in pharmaceuticals proposed by national regulatory authorities are presented. Additionally, a practical and science-based strategy for implementing the well-established control limits is notably reviewed in terms of an alternative approach for drug product N-nitrosamines without published AI information from animal carcinogenicity testing. Finally, a novel risk evaluation strategy for predicting and investigating the possible nitrosation of amine precursors and amine pharmaceuticals as powerful prevention of nitrosamine contamination is addressed.
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Key Words
- AI, acceptable intake
- APIs, active pharmaceutical ingredients
- ARBs, angiotensin II receptor blockers
- AZBC, 4′-(azidomethyl)-[1.1′-biphenyl]-2-carbonitile
- AZBT, 5-(4′-(azidomethyl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2-yl)-1H-tetrazole
- AZTT, 5-(4′-((5-(azidomethyl)-2-butyl-4-chloro-1H-imidazol-1-yl) methyl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2-yl)-1H-tetrazole
- CDER, center for drug evaluation and research
- CPNP, 1-cyclopentyl-4-nitrosopiperazine
- Control limits
- DBA, N,N-dibutylamine
- DEA, N,N-diethylamine
- DIPEA, N,N-diisopropylethylamine
- DMA, dimethylamine
- DMF, N,N-dimethyl formamide
- DPA, N,N-dipropylamine
- EMA, European Medicines Agency
- EPA, Environmental Protection Agency
- FDA, Food and Drug Administration
- HSA, Health Sciences Authority
- IARC, International Agency for Research on Cancer
- ICH, International Council for Harmonisation
- LD50, median lethal dose
- MBA, N-methylamino-N-butyric acid
- MDD, maximum daily dose
- MNP, 1-methyl-4-nitrosopiperazine
- NAP, nitrosation assay procedure
- NDBA, N-nitrosodibutylamine
- NDEA, N-nitrosodiethylamine
- NDIPA, N-nitrosodiisopropylamine
- NDMA, N-nitrosodimethylamine
- NDSRIs, Nitrosamine drug substance-related impurities
- NEIPA, N-nitroso ethylisopropylamine
- NMBA, N-nitroso-N-methyl-4-aminobutyric acid
- NMP, N-methyl pyrrolidinone
- NOCs, N-nitroso compounds
- Nitrosamines
- Nitrosation
- PPRs, proportionate reporting ratios
- Ranitidine
- SARs, structure–activity relationships
- Sartans
- TD50, median toxic dose
- TEA, triethylamine
- TMA, trimethylamine
- TTC, threshold of toxicological concern
- USFDA, United States Food Drug and Administration
- USP, United States Pharmacopoeia
- WHO, World Health Organization
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Affiliation(s)
- Wisut Wichitnithad
- Department of Analytical Development, Pharma Nueva Co., Ltd, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Department of Clinical Development, Pharma Nueva Co., Ltd, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Siriwan Nantaphol
- Department of Clinical Development, Pharma Nueva Co., Ltd, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | | | - Pornchai Rojsitthisak
- Department of Food and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Natural Products for Ageing and Chronic Diseases, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Corresponding author at: Department of Food and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Road, Patumwan, Bangkok 10330 Thailand.
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Abstract
Background Like all healthy ecosystems, richness of microbiota species characterizes the GI microbiome in healthy individuals. Conversely, a loss in species diversity is a common finding in several disease states. This biome is flooded with energy in the form of undigested and partially digested foods, and in some cases drugs and dietary supplements. Each microbiotic species in the biome transforms that energy into new molecules, which may signal messages to physiological systems of the host. Scope of review Dietary choices select substrates for species, providing a competitive advantage over other GI microbiota. The more diverse the diet, the more diverse the microbiome and the more adaptable it will be to perturbations. Unfortunately, dietary diversity has been lost during the past 50 years and dietary choices that exclude food products from animals or plants will narrow the GI microbiome further. Major conclusion Additional research into expanding gut microbial richness by dietary diversity is likely to expand concepts in healthy nutrition, stimulate discovery of new diagnostics, and open up novel therapeutic possibilities.
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Key Words
- Agrobiodiversity
- Dietary diversity
- FDA, Food and Drug Administration
- FODMAP, fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols
- FXR, farnesoid X receptor
- GI, gastrointestinal
- GIMM, GI microbiome modulator
- GLP-I, glucagon-like peptide-1
- GLUT, glucose transporter
- Gastrointestinal
- HMP, Human Microbiome Project
- MCFA, medium chain fatty acids
- MetaHIT, Metagenomics project of the Human Intestinal Tract
- Microbiome
- Microbiota
- Microbiota richness
- NIH, National Institutes of Health
- PYY, peptide YY
- RYGB, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass
- SCFA, short chain fatty acid
- SGLTs, sodium–glucose cotransporter
- TMA, trimethylamine
- TMAO, trimethylamine-N-oxide
- VSG, vertical sleeve gastrectomy
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark L Heiman
- MicroBiome Therapeutics, 1316 Jefferson Avenue, New Orleans, LA 70115, USA.
| | - Frank L Greenway
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, 6400 Perkins Road, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA
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