1
|
Kikinis Z, Castañeyra-Perdomo A, González-Mora JL, Rushmore RJ, Toppa PH, Haggerty K, Papadimitriou G, Rathi Y, Kubicki M, Kikinis R, Heller C, Yeterian E, Besteher B, Pallanti S, Makris N. Investigating the structural network underlying brain-immune interactions using combined histopathology and neuroimaging: a critical review for its relevance in acute and long COVID-19. Front Psychiatry 2024; 15:1337888. [PMID: 38590789 PMCID: PMC11000670 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1337888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Current views on immunity support the idea that immunity extends beyond defense functions and is tightly intertwined with several other fields of biology such as virology, microbiology, physiology and ecology. It is also critical for our understanding of autoimmunity and cancer, two topics of great biological relevance and for critical public health considerations such as disease prevention and treatment. Central to this review, the immune system is known to interact intimately with the nervous system and has been recently hypothesized to be involved not only in autonomic and limbic bio-behaviors but also in cognitive function. Herein we review the structural architecture of the brain network involved in immune response. Furthermore, we elaborate upon the implications of inflammatory processes affecting brain-immune interactions as reported recently in pathological conditions due to SARS-Cov-2 virus infection, namely in acute and post-acute COVID-19. Moreover, we discuss how current neuroimaging techniques combined with ad hoc clinical autopsies and histopathological analyses could critically affect the validity of clinical translation in studies of human brain-immune interactions using neuroimaging. Advances in our understanding of brain-immune interactions are expected to translate into novel therapeutic avenues in a vast array of domains including cancer, autoimmune diseases or viral infections such as in acute and post-acute or Long COVID-19.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zora Kikinis
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Agustin Castañeyra-Perdomo
- Universidad de La Laguna, Área de Anatomía y Fisiología. Departamento de Ciencias Médicas Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, San Cristobal de la Laguna, Spain
| | - José Luis González-Mora
- Universidad de La Laguna, Área de Anatomía y Fisiología. Departamento de Ciencias Médicas Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, San Cristobal de la Laguna, Spain
- Universidad de La Laguna, Instituto Universitario de Neurosciencias, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, San Cristobal de la Laguna, Spain
| | - Richard Jarrett Rushmore
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, San Cristobal de la Laguna, Spain
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Poliana Hartung Toppa
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Kayley Haggerty
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - George Papadimitriou
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Yogesh Rathi
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Marek Kubicki
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ron Kikinis
- Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Carina Heller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Edward Yeterian
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Psychology, Colby College, Waterville, ME, United States
| | - Bianca Besteher
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Stefano Pallanti
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Science, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- Istituto di Neuroscienze, Florence, Italy
| | - Nikos Makris
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Universidad de La Laguna, Área de Anatomía y Fisiología. Departamento de Ciencias Médicas Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, San Cristobal de la Laguna, Spain
- Universidad de La Laguna, Instituto Universitario de Neurosciencias, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, San Cristobal de la Laguna, Spain
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, San Cristobal de la Laguna, Spain
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Aggarwal NR, Nordwall J, Braun DL, Chung L, Coslet J, Der T, Eriobu N, Ginde AA, Hayanga AJ, Highbarger H, Holodniy M, Horcajada JP, Jain MK, Kim K, Laverdure S, Lundgren J, Natarajan V, Nguyen HH, Pett SL, Phillips A, Poulakou G, Price DA, Robinson P, Rogers AJ, Sandkovsky U, Shaw-Saliba K, Sturek JM, Trautner BW, Waters M, Reilly C. Viral and Host Factors Are Associated With Mortality in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis 2024:ciad780. [PMID: 38376212 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciad780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Persistent mortality in adults hospitalized due to acute COVID-19 justifies pursuit of disease mechanisms and potential therapies. The aim was to evaluate which virus and host response factors were associated with mortality risk among participants in Therapeutics for Inpatients with COVID-19 (TICO/ACTIV-3) trials. METHODS A secondary analysis of 2625 adults hospitalized for acute SARS-CoV-2 infection randomized to 1 of 5 antiviral products or matched placebo in 114 centers on 4 continents. Uniform, site-level collection of participant baseline clinical variables was performed. Research laboratories assayed baseline upper respiratory swabs for SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA and plasma for anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid antigen (viral Ag), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Associations between factors and time to mortality by 90 days were assessed using univariate and multivariable Cox proportional hazards models. RESULTS Viral Ag ≥4500 ng/L (vs <200 ng/L; adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 2.07; 1.29-3.34), viral RNA (<35 000 copies/mL [aHR, 2.42; 1.09-5.34], ≥35 000 copies/mL [aHR, 2.84; 1.29-6.28], vs below detection), respiratory support (<4 L O2 [aHR, 1.84; 1.06-3.22]; ≥4 L O2 [aHR, 4.41; 2.63-7.39], or noninvasive ventilation/high-flow nasal cannula [aHR, 11.30; 6.46-19.75] vs no oxygen), renal impairment (aHR, 1.77; 1.29-2.42), and IL-6 >5.8 ng/L (aHR, 2.54 [1.74-3.70] vs ≤5.8 ng/L) were significantly associated with mortality risk in final adjusted analyses. Viral Ag, viral RNA, and IL-6 were not measured in real-time. CONCLUSIONS Baseline virus-specific, clinical, and biological variables are strongly associated with mortality risk within 90 days, revealing potential pathogen and host-response therapeutic targets for acute COVID-19 disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil R Aggarwal
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Jacquie Nordwall
- Division of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Dominique L Braun
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lucy Chung
- CAMRIS International (under contract no. 75N93019D00025 with National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Health and Human Services), National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Jordan Coslet
- Velocity Clinical Research, Chula Vista, California, USA
| | - Tatyana Der
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Adit A Ginde
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Awori J Hayanga
- Department of Cardiovascular Thoracic Surgery, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Helene Highbarger
- Virus Isolation and Serology Laboratory, Frederick National Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Mark Holodniy
- Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, USA
| | - Juan P Horcajada
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hospital del Mar Research Insititute, UPF, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mamta K Jain
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geotropical Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center and Parkland Health and Hospital System, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Kami Kim
- Division of Infectious Disease and International Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida and Global Emerging Diseases Institute, Tampa General Hospital, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Sylvain Laverdure
- Laboratory of Human Retrovirology and Immunoinformatics, Frederick National Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Jens Lundgren
- CHIP Center of Excellence for Health, Immunity, and Infections and Department of Infectious Diseases, Righospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ven Natarajan
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Frederick National Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Hien H Nguyen
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Veterans Affairs Northern California, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Sarah L Pett
- The Medical Research Council Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, Institute of Clinical Trials and Methodology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Phillips
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Garyphallia Poulakou
- Third Department of Medicine and Laboratory National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Medical School, Athens, Greece
| | - David A Price
- Newcastle Upon Tyne NHUS Hospitals Foundation Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Philip Robinson
- Infection Prevention and Hospital Epidemiology, Hoag Memorial Hospital Presbyterian, Newport Beach, California, USA
| | - Angela J Rogers
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, USA
| | - Uriel Sandkovsky
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Baylor University Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Katy Shaw-Saliba
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases/National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Sturek
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, UVA Health, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Barbara W Trautner
- Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Michael Waters
- Velocity Clinical Research, Chula Vista, California, USA
| | - Cavan Reilly
- Division of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Koutsakos M, Rowntree LC, Hensen L, Chua BY, van de Sandt CE, Habel JR, Zhang W, Jia X, Kedzierski L, Ashhurst TM, Putri GH, Marsh-Wakefield F, Read MN, Edwards DN, Clemens EB, Wong CY, Mordant FL, Juno JA, Amanat F, Audsley J, Holmes NE, Gordon CL, Smibert OC, Trubiano JA, Hughes CM, Catton M, Denholm JT, Tong SY, Doolan DL, Kotsimbos TC, Jackson DC, Krammer F, Godfrey DI, Chung AW, King NJ, Lewin SR, Wheatley AK, Kent SJ, Subbarao K, McMahon J, Thevarajan I, Nguyen TH, Cheng AC, Kedzierska K. Integrated immune dynamics define correlates of COVID-19 severity and antibody responses. Cell Rep Med 2021; 2:100208. [PMID: 33564749 PMCID: PMC7862905 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 causes a spectrum of COVID-19 disease, the immunological basis of which remains ill defined. We analyzed 85 SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals at acute and/or convalescent time points, up to 102 days after symptom onset, quantifying 184 immunological parameters. Acute COVID-19 presented with high levels of IL-6, IL-18, and IL-10 and broad activation marked by the upregulation of CD38 on innate and adaptive lymphocytes and myeloid cells. Importantly, activated CXCR3+cTFH1 cells in acute COVID-19 significantly correlate with and predict antibody levels and their avidity at convalescence as well as acute neutralization activity. Strikingly, intensive care unit (ICU) patients with severe COVID-19 display higher levels of soluble IL-6, IL-6R, and IL-18, and hyperactivation of innate, adaptive, and myeloid compartments than patients with moderate disease. Our analyses provide a comprehensive map of longitudinal immunological responses in COVID-19 patients and integrate key cellular pathways of complex immune networks underpinning severe COVID-19, providing important insights into potential biomarkers and immunotherapies. Analyses of 184 immune features define kinetics of immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 Circulating TFH1 cells in acute COVID-19 correlate with antibodies sIL-6R levels are elevated in severe COVID-19 but do not correlate with IL-6 Elevated IL-6 and IL-18 correlate with immune cell hyperactivation
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marios Koutsakos
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Louise C. Rowntree
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Luca Hensen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Brendon Y. Chua
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Carolien E. van de Sandt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jennifer R. Habel
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Wuji Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Xiaoxiao Jia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Lukasz Kedzierski
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Thomas M. Ashhurst
- Sydney Cytometry Core Research Facility, Charles Perkins Centre, Centenary Institute and University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Givanna H. Putri
- Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Computer Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Felix Marsh-Wakefield
- Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Vascular Immunology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Mark N. Read
- Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Computer Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- The Westmead Initiative, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Davis N. Edwards
- School of Computer Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- The Westmead Initiative, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - E. Bridie Clemens
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Chinn Yi Wong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Francesca L. Mordant
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Jennifer A. Juno
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Fatima Amanat
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA
| | - Jennifer Audsley
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Natasha E. Holmes
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
- Department of Medicine and Radiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Data Analytics Research and Evaluation (DARE) Centre, Austin Health and University of Melbourne, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Antibiotic Allergy and Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
| | - Claire L. Gordon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
| | - Olivia C. Smibert
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peter McCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- National Centre for Infections in Cancer, Peter McCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Jason A. Trubiano
- Centre for Antibiotic Allergy and Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peter McCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- National Centre for Infections in Cancer, Peter McCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Medicine (Austin Health), University of Melbourne, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
| | - Carly M. Hughes
- Monash Infectious Diseases, Monash Medical Centre, Monash Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Mike Catton
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Justin T. Denholm
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Services, Royal Melbourne Hospital and Doherty Department University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Steven Y.C. Tong
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Services, Royal Melbourne Hospital and Doherty Department University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne VIC, Australia
- Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT, Australia
| | - Denise L. Doolan
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health & Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD, Australia
| | - Tom C. Kotsimbos
- Department of Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Allergy, Immunology, and Respiratory Medicine, Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - David C. Jackson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Florian Krammer
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dale I. Godfrey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Advanced Molecular Imaging at the University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Amy W. Chung
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Nicholas J.C. King
- Sydney Cytometry Core Research Facility, Charles Perkins Centre, Centenary Institute and University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Viral Immunopathology Laboratory, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Sydney Nano, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Sharon R. Lewin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Services, Royal Melbourne Hospital and Doherty Department University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne VIC, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Monash University and Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Adam K. Wheatley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Stephen J. Kent
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Melbourne Sexual Health Centre, Infectious Diseases Department, Alfred Health, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kanta Subbarao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - James McMahon
- Monash Infectious Diseases, Monash Medical Centre, Monash Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Monash University and Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Irani Thevarajan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Services, Royal Melbourne Hospital and Doherty Department University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Thi H.O. Nguyen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Allen C. Cheng
- School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Infection Prevention and Healthcare Epidemiology Unit, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Katherine Kedzierska
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Corresponding author
| |
Collapse
|