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Liu C, Liu X, Wei Z, Chang Z, Bai Y, Zeng P, Cao Q, Tie C, Lei Z, Sun P, Liang H, Sun Q, Zhang X. Amorphous Albumin Gadolinium-Based Nanoparticles for Ultrahigh-Resolution Magnetic Resonance Angiography. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2024; 16:9702-9712. [PMID: 38363797 PMCID: PMC10911108 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c16391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) contrast agents are extensively utilized in clinical practice due to their capability of improving the image resolution and sensitivity. However, the clinically approved MRA contrast agents have the disadvantages of a limited acquisition time window and high dose administration for effective imaging. Herein, albumin-coated gadolinium-based nanoparticles (BSA-Gd) were meticulously developed for in vivo ultrahigh-resolution MRA. Compared to Gd-DTPA, BSA-Gd exhibits a significantly higher longitudinal relaxivity (r1 = 76.7 mM-1 s-1), nearly 16-fold greater than that of Gd-DTPA, and an extended blood circulation time (t1/2 = 40 min), enabling a dramatically enhanced high-resolution imaging of microvessels (sub-200 μm) and low dose imaging (about 1/16 that of Gd-DTPA). Furthermore, the clinically significant fine vessels were successfully mapped in large mammals, including a circle of Willis, kidney and liver vascular branches, tumor vessels, and differentiated arteries from veins using dynamic contrast-enhanced MRA BSA-Gd, and have superior imaging capability and biocompatibility, and their clinical applications hold substantial promise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenchen Liu
- Department
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Institute
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Guangdong
Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Optical Imaging Technology
& Center for Biomedical Optics and Molecular Imaging, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese
Academy of Science, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xiaoming Liu
- Department
of Radiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Hubei
Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Zhihao Wei
- Department
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Institute
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Zong Chang
- Guangdong
Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Optical Imaging Technology
& Center for Biomedical Optics and Molecular Imaging, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese
Academy of Science, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yaowei Bai
- Department
of Radiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Hubei
Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Pei Zeng
- Department
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Institute
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Qi Cao
- Department
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Institute
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Changjun Tie
- Paul
C. Lauterbur
Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Ziqiao Lei
- Department
of Radiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Hubei
Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Peng Sun
- Clinical
& Technical Support, Philips Healthcare, Beijing 100600, China
| | - Huageng Liang
- Department
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Institute
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Qinchao Sun
- Guangdong
Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Optical Imaging Technology
& Center for Biomedical Optics and Molecular Imaging, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese
Academy of Science, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xiaoping Zhang
- Department
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
- Institute
of Urology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
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Jara MO, Warnken ZN, Sahakijpijarn S, Thakkar R, Kulkarni VR, Christensen DJ, Koleng JJ, Williams RO 3rd. Oral Delivery of Niclosamide as an Amorphous Solid Dispersion That Generates Amorphous Nanoparticles during Dissolution. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14. [PMID: 36559062 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14122568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Niclosamide is an FDA-approved anthelmintic that is being studied in clinical trials as a chemotherapeutic and broad-spectrum antiviral. Additionally, several other applications are currently in the preclinical stage. Unfortunately, niclosamide is a poorly water soluble molecule, with reduced oral bioavailability, which hinders its use for new indications. Moreover, niclosamide is a poor glass former; in other words, the molecule has a high tendency to recrystallize, and it is virtually impossible to generate a stable amorphous solid employing the neat molecule. Previously, our group reported the development of an amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) of niclosamide (niclosamide ASD) that generates nanoparticles during its dissolution, not only increasing niclosamide's apparent solubility from 6.6 ± 0.4 to 481.7 ± 22.2 µg/mL in fasted state simulated intestinal fluid (FaSSIF) but also its oral bioavailability 2.6-fold in Sprague-Dawley rats after being administered as a suspension. Nevertheless, niclosamide ASD undergoes recrystallization in acidic media, and an enteric oral dosage form is needed for its translation into the clinic. In this work, we further characterized the nanoparticles that generated during the dissolution of the niclosamide ASD. Cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (Cryo-TEM) and wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) revealed that the nanoparticles were amorphous and had a particle size of ~150 nm. The oral dosage forms of niclosamide ASD were formulated using commercial enteric capsules (Capsuline® and EudracapTM) and as enteric-coated tablets. The enteric dosage forms were tested using pH-shift dissolution and acid-uptake tests, using the USP type II dissolution apparatus and the disintegration apparatus, respectively. The capsules exhibited a higher percentage of weight gain, and visual rupture of the Capsuline capsules was observed. Eudracap capsules protected the formulation from the acidic media, but polymer gelling and the formation of a nondispersible plug were noted during dissolution testing. In contrast, enteric-coated tablets protected the formulation from acid ingress and maintained the performance of niclosamide ASD granules during dissolution in FaSSIF media. These enteric-coated tablets were administered to beagle dogs at a niclosamide dose of 75 mg/kg, resulting in plasma concentrations of niclosamide higher than those reported in the literature using solubilized niclosamide at a higher dose (i.e., 100 mg/kg). In summary, an enteric oral dosage form of niclosamide ASD was formulated without hindering the generation of nanoparticles while maintaining the increase in the niclosamide's apparent solubility. The enteric-coated tablets successfully increased the niclosamide plasma levels in dogs when compared to a niclosamide solution prepared using organic solvents.
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Chen Z, Higashi K, Ueda K, Moribe K. Multistep Crystallization of Pharmaceutical Amorphous Nanoparticles via a Cognate Pathway of Oriented Attachment: Direct Evidence of Nonclassical Crystallization for Organic Molecules. Nano Lett 2022; 22:6841-6846. [PMID: 35830610 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Crystallization of organic molecules is important in a wide range of scientific disciplines. However, in contrast to maturely studied crystallization of inorganic materials, the crystallization mechanisms of organic molecules involving nucleation and crystal growth are still poorly understood. Here, we used time-resolved cryogenic transmission electron microscopy to directly map the morphological evolution of amorphous cyclosporin A (CyA) nanoparticles during CyA crystallization. We successfully observed its initial nucleation and found that the amorphous CyA nanoparticles crystallized via a pathway cognate with oriented attachment, which is the nonclassical crystallization mechanism usually reported for inorganic compounds. Crystalline mesostructured intermediates (mesocrystals) were formed during crystallization. This study revealed clear and direct evidence of mesocrystal formation and oriented attachment in organic pharmaceuticals, providing new insights into the crystallization of organic molecules and theories of nonclassical crystallization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqiao Chen
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-8675, Japan
| | - Kenjirou Higashi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-8675, Japan
| | - Keisuke Ueda
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-8675, Japan
| | - Kunikazu Moribe
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-8675, Japan
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Borovik P, Oestreicher V, Huck-Iriart C, Jobbágy M. Amorphous Calcium Phosphates: Solvent-Controlled Growth and Stabilization through the Epoxide Route. Chemistry 2021; 27:10077-10086. [PMID: 33890346 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202005483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Calcium phosphates stand among the most promising nanobiomaterials in key biomedical applications, such as bone repairment, signalling or drug/gene delivery. Their intrinsic properties as crystalline structure, composition, particle shape and size define their successful use. Among these compounds, metastable amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) is currently gaining particular attention due to its inherently high reactivity in solution, which is crucial in bone development mechanisms. However, the preparation of this highly desired (bio)material with control over its shape, size and phase purity remains as a synthetic challenge. In this work, the epoxide route was adapted for the synthesis of pure and stable ACP colloids. By using biocompatible solvents, such as ethylene glycol and/or glycerine, it was possible to avoid the natural tendency of ACP to maturate into more stable and crystalline apatites. Moreover, this procedure offers size control, ranging from small nanoparticles (60 nm) to micrometric spheroids (>500 nm). The eventual fractalization of the internal mesostructured can be tuned, by simply adjusting the composition of the ethylene glycol:glycerine solvent mixture. These findings introduce the use of green solvents as a new tool to control crystallinity and/or particle size in the synthesis of nanomaterials, avoiding the use of capping agents and preserving the natural chemical reactivity of the pristine surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Borovik
- INQUIMAE-DQIAQF, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Pab. II, 1428, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Current address, Gerencia Química & Instituto de Nanociencia y Nanotecnología, Centro Atómico Constituyentes, Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica, CONICET, Av. Gral. Paz 1499, 1650, San Martín, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Víctor Oestreicher
- INQUIMAE-DQIAQF, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Pab. II, 1428, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Current address: Instituto de Ciencia Molecular (ICMol), Universidad de Valencia, Catedrático José Beltrán 2, 46980, Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Cristián Huck-Iriart
- Escuela de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, CONICET, 25 de mayo 1650, 1650, San Martín, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Matías Jobbágy
- INQUIMAE-DQIAQF, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Pab. II, 1428, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Tang C, Meng K, Chen X, Yao H, Kong J, Li F, Yin H, Jin M, Liang H, Yuan Q. Preparation, Characterization, and In Vivo Evaluation of Amorphous Icaritin Nanoparticles Prepared by a Reactive Precipitation Technique. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26102913. [PMID: 34068926 PMCID: PMC8155890 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26102913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Icaritin is a promising anti-hepatoma drug that is currently being tested in a phase-III clinical trial. A novel combination of amorphization and nanonization was used to enhance the oral bioavailability of icaritin. Amorphous icaritin nanoparticles (AINs) were prepared by a reactive precipitation technique (RPT). Fourier transform infrared spectrometry was used to investigate the mechanism underlying the formation of amorphous nanoparticles. AINs were characterized via scanning electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and differential scanning calorimetry. Our prepared AINs were also evaluated for their dissolution rates in vitro and oral bioavailability. The resultant nanosized AINs (64 nm) were amorphous and exhibited a higher dissolution rate than that derived from a previous oil-suspension formulation. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed that the C=O groups from the hydrophilic chain of polymers and the OH groups from icaritin formed hydrogen bonds that inhibited AIN crystallization and aggregation. Furthermore, an oral administration assay in beagle dogs showed that Cmax and AUClast of the dried AINs formulation were 3.3-fold and 4.5-fold higher than those of the oil-suspension preparation (p < 0.01), respectively. Our results demonstrate that the preparation of amorphous drug nanoparticles via our RPT may be a promising technique for improving the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Tang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China;
| | - Kun Meng
- Beijing Shenogen Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Beijing 102206, China; (K.M.); (X.C.); (H.Y.); (J.K.); (F.L.); (H.Y.); (M.J.)
| | - Xiaoming Chen
- Beijing Shenogen Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Beijing 102206, China; (K.M.); (X.C.); (H.Y.); (J.K.); (F.L.); (H.Y.); (M.J.)
| | - Hua Yao
- Beijing Shenogen Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Beijing 102206, China; (K.M.); (X.C.); (H.Y.); (J.K.); (F.L.); (H.Y.); (M.J.)
| | - Junqiong Kong
- Beijing Shenogen Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Beijing 102206, China; (K.M.); (X.C.); (H.Y.); (J.K.); (F.L.); (H.Y.); (M.J.)
| | - Fusu Li
- Beijing Shenogen Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Beijing 102206, China; (K.M.); (X.C.); (H.Y.); (J.K.); (F.L.); (H.Y.); (M.J.)
| | - Haiyan Yin
- Beijing Shenogen Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Beijing 102206, China; (K.M.); (X.C.); (H.Y.); (J.K.); (F.L.); (H.Y.); (M.J.)
| | - Mingji Jin
- Beijing Shenogen Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Beijing 102206, China; (K.M.); (X.C.); (H.Y.); (J.K.); (F.L.); (H.Y.); (M.J.)
| | - Hao Liang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China;
- Correspondence: (H.L.); (Q.Y.)
| | - Qipeng Yuan
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China;
- Correspondence: (H.L.); (Q.Y.)
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Monti JM, Robbins MO. Sliding Friction of Amorphous Asperities on Crystalline Substrates: Scaling with Contact Radius and Substrate Thickness. ACS Nano 2020; 14:16997-17003. [PMID: 33226231 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c06241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Disorder in the contact between an amorphous slider and a crystalline substrate leads to a cancellation of lateral forces. Atomically flat, rigid surfaces exhibit structural superlubricity, with the frictional stress in circular contacts of radius a vanishing as 1/a. The inclusion of elasticity allows relative motion of domains on the surface in response to the random interfacial forces. The competition between disorder and elastic deformation is predicted to limit structural superlubricity and produce a constant frictional stress for a larger than a characteristic domain size λ that depends on the ratio of the shear modulus G to the magnitude of interfacial shear stresses τ0. Extensive simulations of a flat, amorphous punch sliding on a crystalline substrate with different system sizes and G/τ0 are used to test scaling predictions and determine unknown prefactors that are needed for quantitative analysis. For bulk systems, we find an exponential decrease of the large a frictional stress and 1/λ with increasing G/τ0. For thin free-standing films, the stress and 1/λ are inversely proportional to G/τ0. These results may help explain the size-dependent friction of nanoparticles and plate-like materials used as solid lubricants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Monti
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
| | - Mark O Robbins
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
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Gogoi H, Mani R, Aggarwal S, Malik A, Munde M, Bhatnagar R. Crystalline and Amorphous Preparation of Aluminum Hydroxide Nanoparticles Enhances Protective Antigen Domain 4 Specific Immunogenicity and Provides Protection Against Anthrax. Int J Nanomedicine 2020; 15:239-252. [PMID: 32021177 PMCID: PMC6970252 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s219647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Aluminum salts, although they have been used as adjuvants in many vaccine formulations since 1926, exclusively induce a Th2-biased immune response, thereby limiting their use against intracellular pathogens like Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Methods and Results Herein, we synthesized amorphous and crystalline forms of aluminum hydroxide nanoparticles (AH nps) of 150–200 nm size range. Using Bacillus anthracis protective antigen domain 4 (D4) as a model antigen, we demonstrated that both amorphous and crystalline forms of AH nps displayed enhanced antigen D4 uptake by THP1 cells as compared to commercial adjuvant aluminum hydroxide gel (AH gel). In a mouse model, both amorphous and crystalline AH nps triggered an enhanced D4-specific Th2- and Th1-type immune response and conferred superior protection against anthrax spore challenge as compared to AH gel. Physicochemical characterization of crystalline and amorphous AH nps revealed stronger antigen D4 binding and release than AH gel. Conclusion These results demonstrate that size and crystallinity of AH nps play important roles in mediating enhanced antigen presenting cells (APCs) activation and potentiating a strong antigen-specific immune response, and are critical parameters for the rational design of alum-based Th1-type adjuvant to induce a more balanced antigen-specific immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himanshu Gogoi
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Molecular Biology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Rajesh Mani
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Molecular Biology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Soumya Aggarwal
- School of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Anshu Malik
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Molecular Biology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Manoj Munde
- School of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Rakesh Bhatnagar
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Molecular Biology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India.,Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Müller WEG, Schröder HC, Wang X. The Understanding of the Metazoan Skeletal System, Based on the Initial Discoveries with Siliceous and Calcareous Sponges. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:E172. [PMID: 28604622 PMCID: PMC5484122 DOI: 10.3390/md15060172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 06/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Initiated by studies on the mechanism of formation of the skeletons of the evolutionary oldest still extant multicellular animals, the sponges (phylum Porifera) have provided new insights into the mechanism of formation of the Ca-phosphate/hydroxyapatite skeleton of vertebrate bone. Studies on the formation of the biomineral skeleton of sponges revealed that both the formation of the inorganic siliceous skeletons (sponges of the class of Hexactinellida and Demospongiae) and of the calcareous skeletons (class of Calcarea) is mediated by enzymes (silicatein: polymerization of biosilica; and carbonic anhydrase: deposition of Ca-carbonate). Detailed studies of the initial mineralization steps in human bone-forming cells showed that this process is also controlled by enzymes, starting with the deposition of Ca-carbonate bio-seeds, mediated by carbonic anhydrases-II and -IX, followed by non-enzymatic transformation of the formed amorphous Ca-carbonate deposits into amorphous Ca-phosphate and finally hydroxyapatite crystals. The required phosphate is provided by enzymatic (alkaline phosphatase-mediated) degradation of an inorganic polymer, polyphosphate (polyP), which also acts as a donor for chemically useful energy in this process. These new discoveries allow the development of novel biomimetic strategies for treatment of bone diseases and defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner E G Müller
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at the Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Heinz C Schröder
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at the Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Xiaohong Wang
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at the Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
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