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Hollenhorst MA, Tiemeyer KH, Mahoney KE, Aoki K, Ishihara M, Lowery SC, Rangel-Angarita V, Bertozzi CR, Malaker SA. Comprehensive analysis of platelet glycoprotein Ibα ectodomain glycosylation. J Thromb Haemost 2023; 21:995-1009. [PMID: 36740532 PMCID: PMC10065957 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtha.2023.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Platelet glycoprotein (GP) Ibα is the major ligand-binding subunit of the GPIb-IX-V complex that binds von Willebrand factor. GPIbα is heavily glycosylated, and its glycans have been proposed to play key roles in platelet clearance, von Willebrand factor binding, and as target antigens in immune thrombocytopenia syndromes. Despite its importance in platelet biology, the glycosylation profile of GPIbα is not well characterized. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to comprehensively analyze GPIbα amino acid sites of glycosylation (glycosites) and glycan structures. METHODS GPIbα ectodomain that was recombinantly expressed or that was purified from human platelets was analyzed by Western blot, mass spectrometry glycomics, and mass spectrometry glycopeptide analysis to define glycosites and the structures of the attached glycans. RESULTS We identified a diverse repertoire of N- and O-glycans, including sialoglycans, Tn antigen, T antigen, and ABO(H) blood group antigens. In the analysis of the recombinant protein, we identified 62 unique O-glycosites. In the analysis of the endogenous protein purified from platelets, we identified 48 unique O-glycosites and 1 N-glycosite. The GPIbα mucin domain is densely O-glycosylated. Glycosites are also located within the macroglycopeptide domain and mechanosensory domain. CONCLUSIONS This comprehensive analysis of GPIbα glycosylation lays the foundation for further studies to determine the functional and structural roles of GPIbα glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie A Hollenhorst
- Sarafan ChEM-H, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA; Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA. https://twitter.com/HollenhorstM
| | | | - Keira E Mahoney
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Kazuhiro Aoki
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Mayumi Ishihara
- Cancer Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Sarah C Lowery
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | | | - Carolyn R Bertozzi
- Sarafan ChEM-H, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA; Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Stacy A Malaker
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
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Wan S, Cui S, Jiang M, Wu Q, Ji Y, Xu Y, Gong G. Dual-target synergistic antithrombotic mechanism of a Dabigatran etexilate analogue (HY023016). Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2022; 49:567-576. [PMID: 35147244 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.13634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Thrombin has long been considered a desirable antithrombotic target, but anti-thrombin therapy without anti-platelet therapy has never achieved the ideal effect. HY023016, derived from dabigatran etexilate, exhibited a potent antithrombotic efficacy. In the present study, mechanisms underlying this effect were explored. HY023016 strongly decreased the binding of thrombin to recombinant GPIbα N-terminal sequence which was confirmed by surface plasmon resonance. Flow cytometry revealed that HY023016 selectively decreased the binding of antibody to GPIbα and inhibited the washed human platelet aggregation induced by thrombin. Fluorescence experiment showed that HY023016 remarkably inhibited exosite II by a loss of affinity for the γ'-peptide of fibrinogen. Using intravital microscopy, we observed and recorded the dynamic process of thrombus formation and found that HY023016 effectively prevented thrombus formation in rat arteriovenous shunt thrombosis model. On the basis of these findings, we propose that HY023016 provides a novel insight into the antithrombotic mechanism, which exerts synergistic anticoagulant and antiplatelet effects through thrombin and GPIbα.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Wan
- Department of Pharmacology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Shuang Cui
- Department of Pharmacology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China.,State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Key Lab of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, Nanjing, 21009, China
| | - Minrui Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Qian Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Yingying Ji
- Department of Pharmacology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Yungen Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Guoqing Gong
- Department of Pharmacology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
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Houck KL, Yuan H, Tian Y, Solomon M, Cramer D, Liu K, Zhou Z, Wu X, Zhang J, Oehler V, Dong JF. Physical proximity and functional cooperation of glycoprotein 130 and glycoprotein VI in platelet membrane lipid rafts. J Thromb Haemost 2019; 17:1500-1510. [PMID: 31145836 DOI: 10.1111/jth.14525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Clinical and laboratory studies have demonstrated that platelets become hyperactive and prothrombotic in conditions of inflammation. We have previously shown that the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-6 forms a complex with soluble IL-6 receptor α (sIL-6Rα) to prime platelets for activation by subthreshold concentrations of collagen. Upon being stimulated with collagen, the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3 in platelets is phosphorylated and dimerized to act as a protein scaffold to facilitate the catalytic action between the kinase Syk and the substrate phospholipase Cγ2 (PLCγ2) in collagen-induced signaling. However, it remains unknown how collagen induces phosphorylation and dimerization of STAT3. METHODS AND RESULTS We conducted complementary in vitro experiments to show that the IL-6 receptor subunit glycoprotein 130 (GP130) was in physical proximity to the collagen receptor glycoprotein VI (GPVI in membrane lipid rafts of platelets. This proximity allows collagen to induce STAT3 activation and dimerization, and the IL-6-sIL-6Rα complex to activate the kinase Syk and the substrate PLCγ2 in the GPVI signal pathway, resulting in an enhanced platelet response to collagen. Disrupting lipid rafts or blocking GP130-Janus tyrosine kinase (JAK)-STAT3 signaling abolished the cross-activation and reduced platelet reactivity to collagen. CONCLUSION These results demonstrate cross-talk between collagen and IL-6 signal pathways. This cross-talk could potentially provide a novel mechanism for inflammation-induced platelet hyperactivity, so the IL-6-GP130-JAK-STAT3 pathway has been identified as a potential target to block this hyperactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hengjie Yuan
- Tianjin Neurological Institute, General Hospital, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Ye Tian
- Tianjin Neurological Institute, General Hospital, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | | | - Drake Cramer
- Bloodworks Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
| | - Kitty Liu
- Bloodworks Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
| | - Zhou Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Fuwai Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoping Wu
- Bloodworks Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
| | - Jianning Zhang
- Tianjin Neurological Institute, General Hospital, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Vivian Oehler
- Clinical Research Division, Hutchison Cancer Center, Seattle, Washington
- Seattle Cancer Alliances, Seattle, Washington
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Jing-Fei Dong
- Bloodworks Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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Murase M, Nakayama Y, Sessler DI, Mukai N, Ogawa S, Nakajima Y. Changes in platelet Bax levels contribute to impaired platelet response to thrombin after cardiopulmonary bypass: prospective observational clinical and laboratory investigations. Br J Anaesth 2019; 119:1118-1126. [PMID: 29040496 DOI: 10.1093/bja/aex349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anucleate platelets can undergo apoptosis in response to various stimuli, as do nucleated cells. Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) causes platelet dysfunction and can also activate platelet apoptotic pathways. We therefore evaluated time-dependent changes in blood platelet Bax (a pro-apoptotic molecule) levels and platelet dysfunction after cardiac surgery. Methods We assessed blood samples obtained from subjects having on-pump or off-pump coronary artery bypass graft surgery ( n =20 each). We also evaluated the in vitro effects of platelet Bax increase in eight healthy volunteers. Results Thrombin-induced platelet calcium mobilisation and platelet-surface glycoprotein Ib (GPIb) expression were lowest at weaning from CPB and did not recover on postoperative day one. On-pump surgery increased platelet expression of Bax, especially the oligomerised form, along with translocation of Bax from the cytosol to mitochondria and platelet-surface tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-converting enzyme (TACE) expression. In contrast, mitochondrial cytochrome c expression was reduced. While similar in direction, the magnitude of the observed changes was smaller in patients having off-pump surgery. In vitro , a cell-permeable Bax peptide increased platelet Bax expression to the same extent seen during bypass and produced similar platelet changes. These apoptotic-like changes were largely reversed by Bcl-xL pre-administration, and were completely reversed by combined application of inhibitors that stabilise outer mitochondrial membrane permeability and TACE. Conclusions CPB increases platelet Bax expression, which contributes to reduced platelet-surface GPIb expression and thrombin-induced platelet calcium changes. These changes in platelet apoptotic signalling might contribute to platelet dysfunction after CPB. Clinical trial registration UMIN Clinical Trials Registry (number UMIN000006033).
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Affiliation(s)
- M Murase
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Y Nakayama
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - D I Sessler
- Department of Outcomes Research, Anesthesiology Institute, Cleveland Clinic, OH 44195, USA
| | - N Mukai
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - S Ogawa
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Y Nakajima
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Kansai Medical University, Osaka 573-1191, Japan
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Induruwa I, Moroi M, Bonna A, Malcor J, Howes J, Warburton EA, Farndale RW, Jung SM. Platelet collagen receptor Glycoprotein VI-dimer recognizes fibrinogen and fibrin through their D-domains, contributing to platelet adhesion and activation during thrombus formation. J Thromb Haemost 2018; 16:389-404. [PMID: 29210180 PMCID: PMC5838801 DOI: 10.1111/jth.13919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Essentials Glycoprotein VI (GPVI) binds collagen, starting thrombogenesis, and fibrin, stabilizing thrombi. GPVI-dimers, not monomers, recognize immobilized fibrinogen and fibrin through their D-domains. Collagen, D-fragment and D-dimer may share a common or proximate binding site(s) on GPVI-dimer. GPVI-dimer-fibrin interaction supports spreading, activation and adhesion involving αIIbβ3. SUMMARY Background Platelet collagen receptor Glycoprotein VI (GPVI) binds collagen, initiating thrombogenesis, and stabilizes thrombi by binding fibrin. Objectives To determine if GPVI-dimer, GPVI-monomer, or both bind to fibrinogen substrates, and which region common to these substrates contains the interaction site. Methods Recombinant GPVI monomeric extracellular domain (GPVIex ) or dimeric Fc-fusion protein (GPVI-Fc2 ) binding to immobilized fibrinogen derivatives was measured by ELISA, including competition assays involving collagenous substrates and fibrinogen derivatives. Flow adhesion was performed with normal or Glanzmann thrombasthenic (GT) platelets over immobilized fibrinogen, with or without anti-GPVI-dimer or anti-αIIbβ3. Results Under static conditions, GPVIex did not bind to any fibrinogen substrate. GPVI-Fc2 exhibited specific, saturable binding to both D-fragment and D-dimer, which was inhibited by mFab-F (anti-GPVI-dimer), but showed low binding to fibrinogen and fibrin under our conditions. GPVI-Fc2 binding to D-fragment or D-dimer was abrogated by collagen type III, Horm collagen or CRP-XL (crosslinked collagen-related peptide), suggesting proximity between the D-domain and collagen binding sites on GPVI-dimer. Under low shear, adhesion of normal platelets to D-fragment, D-dimer, fibrinogen and fibrin was inhibited by mFab-F (inhibitor of GPVI-dimer) and abolished by Eptifibatide (inhibitor of αIIbβ3), suggesting that both receptors contribute to thrombus formation on these substrates, but αIIbβ3 makes a greater contribution. Notably, thrombasthenic platelets showed limited adhesion to fibrinogen substrates under flow, which was further reduced by mFab-F, supporting some independent GPVI-dimer involvement in this interaction. Conclusion Only dimeric GPVI interacts with fibrinogen D-domain, at a site proximate to its collagen binding site, to support platelet adhesion/activation/aggregate formation on immobilized fibrinogen and polymerized fibrin.
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Affiliation(s)
- I. Induruwa
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - M. Moroi
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - A. Bonna
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - J.‐D. Malcor
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - J.‐M. Howes
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - E. A. Warburton
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - R. W. Farndale
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - S. M. Jung
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
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Rabbolini DJ, Gardiner EE, Morel‐Kopp M, Dunkley S, Jahangiri A, Lee CS, Stevenson WS, Ward CM. Anti-glycoprotein VI mediated immune thrombocytopenia: An under-recognized and significant entity? Res Pract Thromb Haemost 2017; 1:291-295. [PMID: 30046699 PMCID: PMC6058269 DOI: 10.1002/rth2.12033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Idiopathic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by relapsing/ remitting thrombocytopenia. Bleeding complications are infrequent with platelet counts above 30×109/L, and this level is commonly used as a threshold for treatment. The question of another/ co-existent diagnosis or an alternate mechanism of platelet destruction arises when bleeding is experienced with platelet counts above this threshold. We report a case of anti-GPVI mediated ITP that was diagnosed following investigations performed to address this key clinical question. A patient with ITP experienced exaggerated bruising symptoms despite a platelet count of 91×109/L. Platelet functional testing showed an isolated platelet defect of collagen-induced aggregation. Next generation sequencing excluded a pathogenic variant of GP6, and anti-GPVI antibodies that curtailed GPVI function were confirmed by extended platelet phenotyping. We propose that anti-GPVI mediated ITP may be under-recognized, and that inclusion of GPVI in antibody detection assays may improve their diagnostic utility and in turn, facilitate a better understanding of ITP pathophysiology and aid individualized treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Rabbolini
- Department of Haematology and Transfusion MedicineRoyal North Shore HospitalSydneyNSWAustralia
- Northern Blood Research CentreKolling Institute of Medical ResearchUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
| | - Elizabeth E. Gardiner
- ACRF Department of Cancer Biology and TherapeuticsJohn Curtin School of Medical ResearchAustralian National UniversityCanberraACTAustralia
| | - Marie‐Christine Morel‐Kopp
- Department of Haematology and Transfusion MedicineRoyal North Shore HospitalSydneyNSWAustralia
- Northern Blood Research CentreKolling Institute of Medical ResearchUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
| | | | - Anila Jahangiri
- ACRF Department of Cancer Biology and TherapeuticsJohn Curtin School of Medical ResearchAustralian National UniversityCanberraACTAustralia
| | - Christine S‐M. Lee
- ACRF Department of Cancer Biology and TherapeuticsJohn Curtin School of Medical ResearchAustralian National UniversityCanberraACTAustralia
| | - William S. Stevenson
- Department of Haematology and Transfusion MedicineRoyal North Shore HospitalSydneyNSWAustralia
- Northern Blood Research CentreKolling Institute of Medical ResearchUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
| | - Christopher M. Ward
- Department of Haematology and Transfusion MedicineRoyal North Shore HospitalSydneyNSWAustralia
- Northern Blood Research CentreKolling Institute of Medical ResearchUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
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7
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Poulter NS, Pollitt AY, Owen DM, Gardiner EE, Andrews RK, Shimizu H, Ishikawa D, Bihan D, Farndale RW, Moroi M, Watson SP, Jung SM. Clustering of glycoprotein VI (GPVI) dimers upon adhesion to collagen as a mechanism to regulate GPVI signaling in platelets. J Thromb Haemost 2017; 15:549-564. [PMID: 28058806 PMCID: PMC5347898 DOI: 10.1111/jth.13613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Essentials Dimeric high-affinity collagen receptor glycoprotein VI (GPVI) is present on resting platelets. Spatio-temporal organization of platelet GPVI-dimers was evaluated using advanced microscopy. Upon platelet adhesion to collagenous substrates, GPVI-dimers coalesce to form clusters. Clustering of GPVI-dimers may increase avidity and facilitate platelet activation SUMMARY: Background Platelet glycoprotein VI (GPVI) binding to subendothelial collagen exposed upon blood vessel injury initiates thrombus formation. Dimeric GPVI has high affinity for collagen, and occurs constitutively on resting platelets. Objective To identify higher-order oligomerization (clustering) of pre-existing GPVI dimers upon interaction with collagen as a mechanism to initiate GPVI-mediated signaling. Methods GPVI was located by use of fluorophore-conjugated GPVI dimer-specific Fab (antigen-binding fragment). The tested substrates include Horm collagen I fibers, soluble collagen III, GPVI-specific collagen peptides, and fibrinogen. GPVI dimer clusters on the platelet surface interacting with these substrates were visualized with complementary imaging techniques: total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to monitor real-time interactions, and direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM), providing relative quantification of GPVI cluster size and density. Confocal microscopy was used to locate GPVI dimer clusters, glycoprotein Ib, integrin α2 β1 , and phosphotyrosine. Results Upon platelet adhesion to all collagenous substrates, GPVI dimers coalesced to form clusters; notably clusters formed along the fibers of Horm collagen. dSTORM revealed that GPVI density within clusters depended on the substrate, collagen III being the most effective. Clusters on fibrinogen-adhered platelets were much smaller and more numerous; whether these are pre-existing oligomers of GPVI dimers or fibrinogen-induced is not clear. Some GPVI dimer clusters colocalized with areas of phosphotyrosine, indicative of signaling activity. Integrin α2 β1 was localized to collagen fibers close to GPVI dimer clusters. GPVI clustering depends on a dynamic actin cytoskeleton. Conclusions Platelet adhesion to collagen induces GPVI dimer clustering. GPVI clustering increases both avidity for collagen and the proximity of GPVI-associated signaling molecules, which may be crucial for the initiation and persistence of signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. S. Poulter
- Institute of Cardiovascular SciencesCollege of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirminghamUK
- Centre for Membrane Proteins and Receptors (COMPARE)College of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirminghamUK
| | - A. Y. Pollitt
- Institute of Cardiovascular SciencesCollege of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirminghamUK
- Present address: Institute for Cardiovascular and Metabolic ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesUniversity of ReadingReadingRG6 6ASUK
| | - D. M. Owen
- Department of Physics and Randall Division of Cell and Molecular BiophysicsKing's College LondonLondonUK
| | - E. E. Gardiner
- Department of Cancer Biology and TherapeuticsJohn Curtin School of Medical ResearchAustralian National UniversityCanberraACTAustralia
| | - R. K. Andrews
- Australian Centre for Blood DiseasesMonash UniversityMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - H. Shimizu
- Research DepartmentChemo‐Sero‐Therapeutic Research InstituteKaketsukenKumamotoJapan
| | - D. Ishikawa
- Research DepartmentChemo‐Sero‐Therapeutic Research InstituteKaketsukenKumamotoJapan
| | - D. Bihan
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - R. W. Farndale
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - M. Moroi
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - S. P. Watson
- Institute of Cardiovascular SciencesCollege of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirminghamUK
- Centre for Membrane Proteins and Receptors (COMPARE)College of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirminghamUK
| | - S. M. Jung
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
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