Chemical Pathology of Homocysteine VIII. Effects of Tocotrienol, Geranylgeraniol, and Squalene on Thioretinaco Ozonide, Mitochondrial Permeability, and Oxidative Phosphorylation in Arteriosclerosis, Cancer, Neurodegeneration and Aging

A century ago a fat-soluble vitamin from leafy vegetables, later named vitamin E, was discovered to enhance fertility in animals. Vitamin E consists of 8 isomers of tocopherols and tocotrienols, each containing chromanol groups that confer antioxidant properties and differ only in the 15-carbon saturated phytyl poly-isoprenoid side chain of tocopherols and the 15-carbon unsaturated farnesyl poly-isoprenoid side chain of tocotrienols. Although tocotrienol was first isolated from rubber plants in 1964, its importance in multiple disease processes was not recognized until two decades later, when the cholesterol-lowering and anti-cancer effects were first reported. Tocotrienol (T3) protects against radiation injury and mitochondrial dysfunction by preventing opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore, thereby inhibiting loss of the active site for oxidative phosphorylation, thioretinaco ozonide oxygen ATP, from mitochondria by complex formation with the active site, TR₂CoO₃O₂NAD⁺H₂PO₄ ^-T3. The preventive effects of tocotrienol on vascular disease, cancer, neurodegeneration and aging are attributed to its effects on cellular apoptosis and senescence. Geranylgeraniol is an important intermediate in the biosynthesis of cholesterol, and cholesterol auxotrophy of lymphoma cell lines and primary tumors is attributed to loss of squalene monooxygenase and accumulation of intracellular squalene. Geranylgeraniol and tocotrienol have synergistic inhibitory effects on growth and HMG CoA reductase activity, accompanied by reduction of membrane KRAS protein of cultured human prostate carcinoma cells. Since cholesterol inhibits opening of the mPTP pore of mitochondria, inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis by these effects of tocotrienol and geranylgeraniol produces increased mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis from loss of the active site of oxidative phosphorylation from mitochondria.

Chemical Pathology of Homocysteine VII. Cholesterol, Thioretinaco Ozonide, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Prevention of Mortality

The purpose of this review is to elucidate how low blood cholesterol promotes mitochondrial dysfunction and mortality by the loss of thioretinaco ozonide from opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP). Mortality from infections and cancer are both inversely associated with blood cholesterol, as determined by multiple cohort studies from 10 to 30 years earlier. Moreover, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is inversely related to all-cause and/or cardiovascular mortality, as determined by followup study of elderly cohorts. LDL adheres to and inactivates most microorganisms and their toxins, causing aggregation of LDL and homocysteinylated autoantibodies which obstruct vasa vasorum and produce intimal microabscesses, the vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. The active site of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) biosynthesis is proposed to consist of thioretinaco, a complex of two molecules of thioretinamide with cobalamin, oxidized to the disulfonium thioretinaco ozonide and complexed with oxygen, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺), phosphate, and ATP. Loss of the active site complex from mitochondria results from the opening of the mPTP and from decomposition of the disulfonium active site by electrophilic carcinogens, oncogenic viruses, microbes, and by reactive oxygen radicals from ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Suppression of innate immunity is caused by the depletion of adenosyl methionine because of increased polyamine biosynthesis, resulting in inhibition of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite biosynthesis. Opening of the mPTP produces a loss of thioretinaco ozonide from mitochondria. This loss impairs ATP biosynthesis and causes the mitochondrial dysfunction observed in carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, aging and dementia. Cholesterol inhibits the opening of the mPTP by preventing integration of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX) in the outer mitochondrial membrane. This inhibition explains how elevated LDL reduces mitochondrial dysfunction by preventing loss of the active site of oxidative phosphorylation from mitochondria.

Review: Chemical Pathology of Homocysteine VI. Aging, Cellular Senescence, and Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Following the discovery that caloric restriction extends the lifespan of many species of animals, the free radical theory of aging attributes the occurrence of oxidized nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids to reactive oxygen radical species originating from the metabolism of foods and the diminished efficacy of oxidative metabolism. Because of the decline of many critical neuro-hormones in aging, the neuroendocrine theory of aging attributes these changes to reduced feedback control of hormone production by the hypothalamus. Several rare genetic diseases attribute accelerated aging to changes in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) repair, depletion of the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺), and altered methionine and homocysteine metabolism. The theory of oxidative phosphorylation attributes mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis to the active site, thioretinaco ozonide oxygen NAD⁺ phosphate, which couples polymerization of NAD⁺ and phosphate to ATP produced by reduction of oxygen by electrons derived from foods. Loss of the thioretinaco ozonide oxygen ATP complex from the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) is proposed to explain the abnormalities of oxidative metabolism occurring in cellular aging and carcinogenesis, thereby uniting the free radical and neuroendocrine theories of aging. Cellular senescence is associated with shortening of telomeres and decreased activity of telomerase, and exposure of cultured endothelial cells to homocysteine causes cellular senescence, shortened telomeres, and increased acidic β-galactosidase, a marker of cellular senescence. The decrease in telomerase with aging is related to decreased nitric oxide production by nitric oxide synthase. The pathogenic microbes occurring in atherosclerotic plaques and in cerebral plaques in dementia inhibit nitric oxide synthesis by up-regulation of polyamine biosynthesis from adenosyl methionine and putrescene, causing the hyperhomocysteinemia and suppressed immunity that is observed in atherosclerosis and dementia. Progressive mitochondrial dysfunction occurs in aging because of loss of the thioretinaco ozonide oxygen ATP complex from mitochondrial membranes by opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. Melatonin, a neuro-hormone, and cycloastragenol, a telomerase activator, both prevent mitochondrial dysfunction by inhibition of mPTP pore opening. The carcinogenic effects of radiofrequency radiation and mycotoxins are attributed to loss of thioretinaco ozonide from opening of the mPTP and decomposition of the active site of oxidative phosphorylation. The anti-aging effects of retinoids, the decreased concentration of cerebral cobalamin coenzymes in aging, and the diminished concentration of NAD⁺ from sirtuin activation, as observed in aging, all support the concept of loss of the thioretinaco ozonide oxygen ATP active site from mitochondria as the cause of decreased oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial dysfunction in aging.

Communication: Homocysteine, Thioretinaco Ozonide, Oxidative Phosphorylation, Biosynthesis of Phosphoadenosine Phosphosulfate and the Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis

The formation of phosphoadenosine phosphosulfate (PAPS) is accomplished by the action of the enzyme 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate synthase (PAPSS) in two sequential reactions, consisting of (1) reaction of inorganic sulfate with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to form adenosine phosphosulfate (APS) and pyrophosphate and (2) reaction of APS with inorganic phosphate to form PAPS and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The hydrolysis of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is coordinated with synthesis of APS in a reaction sequence which provides the chemical energy for synthesis of APS. The present proposal is that the active site of oxidative phosphorylation, thioretinaco ozonide oxygen (TR₂CoO₃O₂), functions as the source of APS synthesis from nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) and hydrosulfate (HSO₄^-) by reduction of the complex with electrons from electron transport complexes, releasing APS and thioretinaco hydroperoxide (TR₂CoO₃O₂H) upon protonation. Subsequently, APS reacts with GTP, which is produced from the active site of oxidative phosphorylation, TR₂CoO₃O₂ATP, to phosphorylate APS to PAPS. These proposed reactions for PAPS synthesis in atherosclerosis explain the metabolic pathway for formation of PAPS from homocysteine through the intermediate formation of thioretinamide (TR) and explain how hyperhomocysteinemia stimulates production of sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAG), which are essential components of atherosclerotic plaques.

Homocysteine and the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis

The homocysteine theory of arteriosclerosis was discovered by study of arteriosclerotic plaques occurring in homocystinuria, a disease caused by deficiencies of cystathionine synthase, methionine synthase or methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase. According to the homocysteine theory, metabolic and nutritional abnormalities leading to elevation of plasma homocysteine cause atherosclerosis in the general population without these rare enzymatic abnormalities. Through studies of metabolism of homocysteine thiolactone, the anhydride of homocysteine, in cell cultures from homocystinuric children, the pathway for synthesis of sulfate was found to be dependent upon thioretinamide, the amide formed from retinoic acid and homocysteine thiolactone. Two molecules of thioretinamide form the complex thioretinaco with cobalamin, and oxidative phosphorylation is catalyzed by reduction of oxygen, which is bound to thioretinaco ozonide, by electrons from electron transport particles. Atherogenesis is attributed to formation of aggregates of homocysteinylated lipoproteins with microorganisms, which obstruct the vasa vasorum during formation of arterial vulnerable plaques.

The active site of oxidative phosphorylation and the origin of hyperhomocysteinemia in aging and dementia

The active site of oxidative phosphorylation and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis in mitochondria is proposed to consist of two molecules of thioretinamide bound to cobalamin, forming thioretinaco, complexed with ozone, oxygen, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. and inorganic phosphate, TR2CoO3O2NAD(+)H2PO4(-). Reduction of the pyridinium nitrogen of the nicotinamide group by an electron from electron transport complexes initiates polymerization of phosphate with adenosine diphosphate, yielding nicotinamide riboside and ATP bound to thioretinaco ozonide oxygen. A second electron reduces oxygen to hydroperoxyl radical, releasing ATP from the active site. A proton gradient is created within F1F0 ATPase complexes of mitochondria by reaction of protons with reduced nicotinamide riboside and with hydroperoxyl radical, yielding reduced nicotinamide riboside and hydroperoxide. The hyperhomocysteinemia of aging and dementia is attributed to decreased synthesis of adenosyl methionine by thioretinaco ozonide and ATP, causing decreased allosteric activation of cystathionine synthase and decreased allosteric inhibition of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase and resulting in dysregulation of methionine metabolism.