Steroid hormone related male biased parasitism in chamois, Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra

Parasites are linked with their host in a trophic interaction with implications for both hosts and parasites. Interaction stretches from the host's immune response to the structuring of communities and the evolution of biodiversity. As in many species sex determines life history strategy, response to parasites may be sex-specific. Males of vertebrate species tend to exhibit higher rates of parasites than females. Sex-associated hormones may influence immunocompetence and are hypothesised to lead to this bias. In a field study, we tested the prediction of male biased parasitism (MBP) in free ranging chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra), which are infested intensely by gastrointestinal and lung helminths. We further investigated sex differences in faecal androgen (testosterone and epiandrosterone), cortisol and oestrogen metabolites using enzyme immunoassays (EIA) to evaluate the impact of these hormones on sex dependent parasite susceptibility. Non-invasive methods were used and the study was conducted throughout a year to detect seasonal patterns. Hormone levels and parasite counts varied significantly throughout the year. Male chamois had a higher output of gastrointestinal eggs and lungworm larvae when compared to females. The hypothesis of MBP originating in sex related hormone levels was confirmed for the elevated output of lungworm larvae, but not for the gastrointestinal nematodes. The faecal output of lungworm larvae was significantly correlated with androgen and cortisol metabolite levels. Our study shows that sex differences in steroid levels play an important role to explain MBP, although they alone cannot fully explain the phenomenon.

Mass spectrometric analysis of androstan-17beta-ol-3-one and androstadiene-17beta-ol-3-one isomers

Mass spectrometric identification and characterization of steroids using electrospray ionization and tandem mass spectrometry has advantages in drug testing and doping control analysis attributable to limitations of gas chromatography followed by electron ionization mass spectrometry. Steroids with an androstadiene-17beta-ol-3-one nucleus and double bonds located either at C-1 and C-4, C-4 and C-9, or C-4 and C-6 were used to determine characteristic fragmentation pathways. Diagnostic dissociation routes are proposed using deuterium labeling, MS3 experiments, and analyses of structurally closely related compounds. Steroids such as boldenone (androst-1,4-diene-17beta-ol-3-one) produced characteristic product ions at m/z 121, 135, and 147. Compounds with double bonds at C-4 and C-9 generated abundant product ions at m/z 145 and 147. Conjugated double bonds at C-4 and C-6 gave rise to an intense and characteristic signal at m/z 133. Stereochemical differentiation between 5alpha- and 5beta-isomers of androstan-17beta-ol-3-ones was possible because of significant differences in relative abundance of product ions generated by elimination of acetone from alpha,beta-saturated 3-keto steroids.

Anabolic steroids in sport: biochemical, clinical and analytical perspectives

International Olympic Committee accredited laboratories play a key role in upholding the principle of fair play and innate ability, as desired by the majority of sports competitors and spectators. Not only does doping damage the image of sport, but it can also be harmful to the individual. The great majority of samples test negative but, when an adverse finding is declared, the analytical data must be of a sufficiently high standard to withstand legal challenges by third parties. The most widely misused performance-enhancing drugs are the anabolic-androgenic steroids, commonly referred to as 'anabolic steroids'. This review attempts to address the complex issues concerning anabolic steroids in sport by considering the clinical, biochemical and analytical perspectives.

Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites as a measure of adrenal activity in dairy cattle

The feasibility of monitoring acute adrenal activity in New Zealand dairy cattle by measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites was investigated. Fecal glucocorticoid measurement has potential as an indicator of adrenal activity and animal stress because sampling is relatively noninvasive, does not interfere with the stress response itself, and permits on-farm monitoring. Fecal samples were collected from dairy cattle following ACTH challenge and exposure to stressors (novel environment, transport). Two immunoassays (11,17-dioxoandrostane enzymeimmunoassay and ICN corticosterone radioimmunoassay) were compared. Both assays detected increased immunoreactive fecal glucocorticoid metabolites following acute adrenal activity and the temporal relationship between plasma corticosteroids and fecal metabolite excretion was determined. The time to peak excretion was closely related to the transit time of digesta passing between the bile duct and the rectum and was affected by seasonal changes in feed intake and pasture digestibility. We conclude that measurement of glucocorticoid metabolites reliably indicates acute adrenal activity in dairy cattle and in combination with other physiological and behavioral measures has potential for monitoring health and welfare in dairy cattle. (c) 2002 Elsevier Science (USA).

Noninvasive monitoring of adrenocortical activity in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) by measurement of fecal cortisol metabolites

A method for measuring glucocorticoids noninvasively in feces of roe deer was established and validated. The enzyme immunoassay (EIA) measures 11,17-dioxoandrostanes (11,17-DOA), a group of cortisol metabolites. Such measurement avoids blood sampling and reflects a dampened pattern of diurnal glucocorticoid secretion, providing an integrated measure of adrenocortical activity. After high-performance liquid chromatography, the presence of at least three different immunoreactive 11,17-DOA in the feces of roe deer was demonstrated. The physiological relevance of these fecal cortisol metabolites to adrenocortical activity was evaluated with an adrenocorticotropic hormone challenge test: cortisol metabolite concentrations exceeded pretreatment levels (31-78 ng/g) up to 13-fold (183-944 ng/g) within 8-23 h. Starting from basal levels between 13 and 71 ng/g, a suppression of adrenocortical activity after dexamethasone administration, indicated by metabolite levels close to the detection limit, was obtained 36-81 h after treatment, whereas unmetabolized dexamethasone was detectable in feces 12 h after its injection. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolite assessment via EIA is therefore of use in the monitoring of adrenocortical activity in roe deer. In a second experiment, capture, veterinary treatment, and transportation of animals were used as experimental stresses. This resulted in a 7.5-fold increase of fecal metabolites (1200 +/- 880 ng/g, mean +/- SD) compared to baseline concentrations. The administration of a long-acting tranquilizer (LAT), designed to minimize the physiological stress response, 2 days prior to a similar stress event led to a reduced stress response, resulting in only a 4-fold increase of fecal metabolites (650 +/- 280 ng/g; mean +/- SD). Therefore, LATs should be further investigated for their effectiveness in reducing stress responses in zoo and wild animals, e.g., when translocations are necessary.

Measurement of glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in faeces of domestic livestock

After 14C-labelled cortisol infusion in ponies and pigs, faecal samples were collected. Extraction of 0.5 g faeces with 5 ml 80-90% methanol yielded the highest radioactivity in the supernatant. Most of the metabolites were ether soluble. After high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), the presence of immunoreactive metabolites was demonstrated by measuring each HPLC fraction using enzyme immunoassays for cortisol, corticosterone and 11-oxoaetiocholanolone. Only the assay for 11-oxoaetiocholanolone revealed peaks with co-eluting radioactivity. For biological validation of the test system, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and dexamethasone were injected intravenously successively in both species (n = 6). Cortisol concentration in blood and the 11-oxoaetiocholanolone immunoreactive substances in faeces were determined. In horse faeces, basal values of 2.3-35.2 nmol/kg were measured. After ACTH administration, an increase (more than 200% above basal values) of these metabolites was seen about 1 day after ACTH administration. After dexamethasone injection the levels decreased, reaching minimum concentrations 2 days after administration. In pigs, an increase in these metabolites was measured in only three animals after ACTH; dexamethasone did not cause a decrease. The stability of the samples after defecation was tested by storing samples from cows, horses and pigs at room temperature. It was shown that there was a significant increase in the concentration of measured cortisol metabolites in bovine, equine and porcine faeces after storage for 1 h, 4 h and 24 h, respectively. In frozen samples this effect was diminished after thawing samples at 40 degrees C; thawing the samples at 95 degrees C prevented an increase in immunoreactive substances.

Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography of the cardiac glycoside LNF-209 with refractive index detection

LNF-209 is a glycoside, similar to digoxin, which has potential for use in the treatment of congestive heart failure. However, unlike digoxin it exhibits virtually no useful UV absorption spectra, making detection difficult. One means of detection is the refractive index detector, but like most bulk property detectors it has certain limitations. Its sensitivity is limited and it is sensitive to small changes in a number of parameters, such as temperature, mobile phase composition, and flow-rate. These parameters must be closely controlled to obtain a stable baseline. This paper describes the steps taken to control the system and the development and validation of an assay for LNF-209 in dosing solutions. The method developed is capable of quantitating LNF-209 in solutions of sterile water and 5% dextrose at concentrations ranging from 8 to 6000 micrograms/ml. The method is linear over this range and quantitative recovery is obtained. The overall average relative standard deviation for replicate analysis of several samples at various concentrations assayed over two days was 2.3%.

Structures and concentrations of fifteen different steroid sulfates in human breast cyst fluids

By applying capillary gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), a simultaneous quantitation of all important steroid sulfates present in a number of breast cyst fluids, has been obtained. The fact that prevailing androgen sulfate structures in the cyst fluids are different from those in blood suggests at least intracystic metabolism of blood-born precursors. Particularly greater amounts of 5 alpha-reduced steroids are found in breast cysts. 5 alpha-Androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol is a major androgen sulfate of breast cyst fluids, its concentration being some 2000-fold that of blood. After prolonged topical application of progesterone on the breast, an accumulation of the sulfates of several pregnanediol isomers could be observed.

Selective reactions in the analytical characterisation of steroids by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

The analytical characterization, by GC-MS, of individual compounds in mixtures of steroids, such as occur frequently in biological extracts, is difficult because of the close similarities in structure and properties of many components. The improved separating power of capillary (open-tubular) columns alleviates the problem, but does not solve it fully: for example, the coincidence of retention times of two different compounds may still be virtually complete. Comparative analyses on two distinctively different phases afford one valuable application of selectivity, but may not always be feasible when costly columns are required. Comparative analyses of the sample, before and after effecting its modification by well-defined reactions, are inexpensive and are particularly when selective transformations are used. The use of the microbial enzyme cholesterol oxidase as a selective oxidant for 3 beta-hydroxysteroids (chiefly limited to 4-ene, 5-ene and 5 alpha-types) is illustrated for a model mixture of androstanols related to the boar pheromone (5 alpha, 16-androsten-3 alpha-ol). Retention regularities and changes in mass spectra enhance the reliability of identifications. An exploratory application of cholesterol oxidase in the analysis of minor "polar" sterols in human serum is reported. Most of the known minor sterols are good substrates for the enzyme, and their transformation products yield distinctive GC-MS data, as exemplified for the 7 alpha- and 7 beta-hydroxycholesterols. Another convenient and versatile selective reagent is methaneboronic acid, which yields cyclic esters of suitably constituted diols. These derivatives have shorter retention times (on "non-polar" phases) than the di-TMS ethers, chiefly by virtue of their much lower molecular weights. The mass spectra of cyclic boronates generally show clear molecular ions, also fragmentations that complement the information obtainable from the di-TMS ethers. These features are illustrated for a group of diols and triols of the 5 alpha-pregnane series.

High-pressure liquid chromatography of steroids

After a brief discussion of the merits and limitations of high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) relative to other chromatographic methods, special problems in the application to steroids are discussed. Publications on HPLC of steroids are then discussed under the headings of individual classes, arranged generally in the order of increasing polarity.

Mass spectrometry and stability of t-butyldimethylsilylethers of some estrogens and androstanes

In addition to using radioimmunoassays for the determination of estrogens and other steroids, the possibility of using mass fragmentography for analysis was investigated. t-Butyldimethylsilyl chloride was selected as a reagent for derivatisation because it forms rather stable silylethers. In all the mass-spectra obrained from the steroid derivatives, one pronounced peak suitable for mass fragmentography was always present. Some of the spectra of the investigated estrogens, as well as testosterone, 3 alpha-hydroxy-5 alpha-androstan-17-one and 17 alpha-methyl-17 beta-hydroxy-5 alpha-androstan-3-one are discussed. The stability of various t-butyldimethylsilylethers and the rate of enolization of testosterone and progesterone in the presence of the silylation-agent under different conditions were established.

Radioimmunoassay of 17-alpha-alkylated anabolic steroids

A method for the detection of anabolic 17-alpha-alkylated androstane derivatives in both plasma and urine is described and evaluated. The goat and rabbit antisera against 17-alpha-Methyltestosterone-3-carboxymethyloxim-Rinder-serum albumin were raised and compared using [3H]methandrostenolone as a tracer. 22 Steroids including 10 potent synthetic anabolics were tested for their cross-reaction with these antisera.

Radioimmunoassays for androsterone, 5alpha-androstane-3alpha, 17beta-diol and 5alpha-androstane-3beta, 17beta-diol

Androsterone (3alpha-hydroxy-5alpha-androstan-17-one), 5alpha-androstane-3alpha, 17beta-diol and 5alpha-androstane-3beta, 17beta-diol were conjugated at C-16 through sulfur to bovine and human serum albumin. Rabbits injected with these conjugates produced antibodies suitable for radioimmunoassays of these hormone metabolites. Samples were purified on Sephadex LH-20 columns. Levels of these steroids were measured in a rat blood serum pool and in ovarian tissue extract pools.

Analysis of C19O3 steroids by thin-layer and gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry

The separation of twenty-six saturated and two unsaturated C19O3 steroids has been studied by thin-layer chromatography on silica gel F254, with seven mobile phases, and by gas-liquid chromatography on packed columns with four stationary phases; combination of both techniques permitted separation of all the test compounds. The mass spectra of the steroids were obtained by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and are presented. Fragmentation processes have been studied, and characteristic ions that may be used for multiple ion detection or lead to identification of biologically produced C19O3 steroids are discussed.

Synthesis of new steroid haptens for radioimmunoassay. Part III. 15beta-Carboxyethylmercaptosteroid-bovine serum albumin conjugates. Specific antisera for radioimmunoassay of 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone, 5alpha-androstane-3beta, 17beta-diol and 5alpha-androstane-3alpha, 17beta-diol

The syntheses of 15beta-carboxyethylmercapto-5alpha-dihydrotestosterone, 15beta-carbosyethylmercapto-5alpha-androstane-3beta, 17beta-diol and 15beta-carboxyethylmercapto-5alpha-androstane-3alpha, 17beta-diol and the preparation of their bovine serum albumin (BSA) conjugates are described. These conjugates were employed for the generation of specific antisera suitable for radioimmunoassay (RIA) of 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (5alpha-DHT), 5alpha-androstane-3beta, 17beta-diol (3beta-diol) and 5alpha-androstane-3alpha, 17beta-diol (3alpha-diol).

Studies on steroids. CIX. O-omega-haloalkyloximes, new derivatives for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of oxosteroids

Several kinds of omega-haloalkoxyamines have been prepared as new derivative-forming agents applicable for the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of carbonyl compounds. Of these reagents, 2-chloroethoxyamine hydrochloride [O-(2-chloroethyl)hydroxylamine] was the most suitable for use with oxosteroids because of its higher reactivity and the appropriate retention value and satisfactory chromatographic properties of the resulting oximes. The contribution to the retention value due to formation of the 2-chloroethyloxime was determined for 5alpha-androstanones having the oxo-group at various positions in the steroid nucleus. As expected, 17-oxosteroid O-2-haloethyloximes exhibit readily distinguishable isotope peaks as a cluster in the mas spectrum.

The possibility of electron microscopic autoradiography of steroids after freeze drying of unfixed testes

A technique has been developed for the autoradiographic localization of steroids in testes at the light and possibly electron microscope level. During processing of the tissue there is no contact of tissue with water up to the moment of photographic development of the autoradiographs. Tritium labelled steroids have been introduced into the testis through perfusion of the isolated organ. Small tissue samples were rapidly frozen, freeze dried and fixed with osmium vapour. The fixed tissue was embedded in Epon and thin sections could be cut from this material on an ultra-cryotome without the aid of floatation liquids. Results with light microscopic autoradiography indicate the potential of this technique. This procedure which avoids any contact of the tissue with water offers good prospects for autoradiography of steroids and other soluble compounds at the electron microscope level. A comparison is made with other proposed techniques for steroid autoradiography.

Evidence that the deferential vein acts as a local transport system for androgen in the rat and the dog

Ligation of the deferential vein of the rat has been shown to bring about a reduction in the androgen-dependent activity of the prostatic RNA polymerase enzyme. In the dog, the content of androgens in this vein is of the order of that found in the testicular vein and many times higher than that of peripheral plasma. It seems that the cauda epididymidis alone is sufficient to maintain the ipsilateral lobes of the prostate and seminal vesicles providing an intact ductus deferens and contralateral testis are retained. The results are discussed in relation to the hypothesis that the deferential vein of the dog and rat may serve as a direct transporting system for androgens from the epididymis to the prostatic complex.

Gas-liquid chromatographic studies of reactions and structural relationships of steroids. Part III. 11alpha-hydroxysteroids of the androstane and pregnane series

Qualitative and quantitative effects of classical reactions on steroids observed by gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) under standardized conditions, including the double internal-standard technique, are reported. Simple procedures applicable to nanogram amounts of reactants which afford excellent yields of the major products are described. Reactions studied include the Wolff-Kishner removal of keto groups, their conversion into hydroxyl groups with sodium-ethanol or sodium borohydride and into dioxolone derivatives with ethylene glycol; the conversion of hydroxyl into keto groups with chromium trioxide and to trimethylsilyl (TMS) ethers by hexamethyldisilazane; the hydrolysis of dioxolone and TMS derivatives by H+. Gas-liquid chromatograms of reaction mixtures of single- and multistep reactions readily provide information on the effects on the 11alpha-hydroxy and other functional groups at positions 3 and 17 (androstane series) and positions 3 and 20 (pregnane series), and the retention times of many steroids unavailable from commercial or other sources. GLC data analysis provides relationships between steroid structure and retention time from which methods for the computation of retention times and for steroid identification are designed. The accuracy of the calculation methods is demonstrated.

A systematic study of testosterone metabolism in benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH): in vitro results

An in vitro system for testing steroids which might be effective in treating benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH) has been developed based upon the transformation of H-3-testosterone into the 5-alpha-reduction products dihydrotestosterone and 3-alpha-androstanediol. In scrutinizing the influence of the amount of BPH-tissue, time, and pH, 300 mg of tissue incubated for 2 h at the physiological pH of 7.4 were used in the standard experiment. -The H-3-testosterone concentration was varied from 0.17-100 times 10-8 M. Plotting the resulting 5-alpha-reduction products as a function of testosterone concentration a hyperbolic pattern of enzyme kinetics ensued. Performing a double reciprocal plot of 4 experiments with double determination of each value regression lines could be computed. Those two regression lines most different in their slopes were considered "normal" limits. The rate of H-3-testosterone metabolism could not be enhanced after the endogenous testosterone content within the prostate glands had been used up by means of a preincubation. Scrutinizing the effect of heparin, a weak non-specific enzyme inhibitor, no suppression of the appearance of 5-alpha-reduction products was found. Damaging the BPH-cells, however, by repetitive freezing and thawing lead to an almost complete inhibition of H-3-testosterone turnover.

Identification and measurement of sulphate-conjugated neutral steroids in the intestinal contents of early and mid-term foetuses

Sulphate-conjugated neutral steroids in the intestinal contents of early and mid-term human foetuses (14–20 weeks of gestation) were investigated by gas—liquid chromatography and gas chromatography—mass spectrometry. Twenty-four neutral steroids were found in the monosulphate fraction and 21 in the disulphate fraction. The total concentration of these steroids varied between 9·6 and 15·3 mg/100 g meconium wet weight, about half being monosulphates and half disulphates. Steroids with a 3β-hydroxy-5-ene structure were found and also saturated steroids which carried hydroxyl groups at carbons 3, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 or 21. Among them were steroids not previously detected in human foetal compartments. Thus, the foetal meconium is both qualitatively and quantitatively the richest foetal source of neutral steroid sulphates so far investigated.

The present results together with those reported in the literature show that in the course of pregnancy there is a many-fold increase in the steroid concentration of the foetal intestinal contents. This is most obvious in the case of saturated C19 steroids and polar pregnane derivatives. Reduction of the 20-ones to 20β-ols seems to be more extensive towards the end of pregnancy. 5, 16-Pregnadienes and 3β-hydroxy-5β-pregnanes are present in higher concentrations in early pregnancy.

A method for the group analysis of steroids in milk

A method has been developed for the systematic analysis of groups of steroids in milk. The procedure consists of saponification, gentle mechanical extraction, oxidation with CrO3, and a Girard separation, followed by thin-layer chromatography of the ketonic fraction. Final separation and estimation is by gas liquid chromatography. The reliability criteria of the method have been examined. A 5α steroid, 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, was obtained from almost all milk samples in amounts equivalent to a concentration of 0.54 μg/100 ml of cows' milk. The present survey has shown that other steroids can sometimes be found in human and cows' milk but only at low levels. The procedure can help in the isolation and definite identification of those steroids which are detectable.

In vivo uptake and metabolism of 3H-testosterone and 3H-5 -dihydrotestosterone by human benign prostatic hypertrophy

Thirty min before prostatectomy, either 400 μCi [1,2-3H] testosterone (51 Ci/mM) or 400 μCi [1,2-3H] 5α-dihydrotestosterone (44 Ci/mM) was injected intravenously into human patients with benign prostatic hypertrophy (bph). Total radioactivity was counted in aliquots of blood, of skeletal muscle, of prostate and of different parts of the prostatic adenomas. After extraction, the unconjugated steroids were isolated by TLC in different systems. The following results were obtained: 1. The endogenous plasma concentrations of testosterone and 5α-dihydrotestosterone (5α-DHT) in patients with bph are within the normal range. 2. Testosterone and 5α-DHT accumulate to a greater extent in prostatic tissue than in muscular tissue. 3. 5α-DHT is the main metabolite in prostatic tissue, the extent of 5α-reduction depending on the predominant type of tissue present. 4. In muscle no 5α-reduction of testosterone occurs, whereas exogenous 5α-DHT is efficiently metabolised to androstanediols and androsterone. 5. The androgen concentrations and the distribution of metabolites in the blood do not reflect the situation in the prostate or in skeletal muscle.