Comparison of the Active Compositions between Raw and Processed Epimedium from Different Species

Epimedium herb is one of the most vital traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), which is used for “nourishing the kidney and reinforcing the Yang”. In the guidance of TCM theory, Epimedium herb is usually processed with lamb oil to increase its efficacy. The contents of active ingredients in different Epimedium are significantly varied, which may derive from their different species, regions and processing methods. In this research, 13 batches of raw Epimedium collected from 6 provinces were identified. After optimization of the processing method of Epimedium, a liquid chromatography⁻mass spectrometry (LC⁻MS/MS) method for simultaneous determination of 16 compounds was established to evaluate the quality of raw and processed. Then the multivariate statistical technique was applied to compare different batches of Epimedium based on the LC⁻MS/MS data. As a conclusion, the herbs collected from 6 areas were ascribed to 5 species by microscopic and appearance features. Meanwhile, all of the raw and processed samples were classified by partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) based on the 16 analyzed compounds. The comparison results indicate that processing and species both have important influences on Epimedium compositions contents.

Contents of Heavy Metals in Chinese Edible Herbs: Evidence from a Case Study of Epimedii Folium

Toxic heavy metal contamination in Chinese edible herbs has raised a worldwide concern. In this study, heavy metals in Epimedii Folium, an edible medicinal plant in China, were quantitatively analyzed. Variations of heavy metals in different species, in various organs (i.e., leaves, stems, and roots), in wild-growing and cultivated plants, and in 35 market samples of Epimedii Folium, were systematically investigated. In all of Epimedium samples, Hg (mercury) was not detectable (0.00 μg/g). Four species, Epimedium pubescens, Epimedium sagittatum, Epimedium brevicornu, and Epimedium wushanense, were found to contain Cu (copper) and Pb (lead). And contents of Cu and Pb in E. brevicornu were significantly higher than those in other species (P < 0.01). In wild-growing and cultivated Epimedium plants, Cd (cadmium) and As (arsenic) were not detectable, and concentrations of Cu and Pb in wild-growing plants were significantly higher than those in cultivated plants (P < 0.01). Cd was not detectable in leaves, roots, and stems, while organ specificity was apparent in the distribution of Cu, As, and Pb. And the highest levels of Cu and Pb were observed in roots and leaves, respectively. In Chinese markets, several samples of Epimedii Folium contained excessive Cu, Cd, As, and Pb beyond the national permissible limits. In summary, there was a large variation of heavy metals among Epimedii Folium samples, and Cu and Pb were the most important heavy metals contaminating the edible medicinal plant. Application of Epimedii Folium to drug and food industries will need to focus more on toxic heavy metal contamination.

Characterization of a Crabs Claw Gene in basal eudicot species Epimedium sagittatum (Berberidaceae)

The Crabs Claw (CRC) YABBY gene is required for regulating carpel development in angiosperms and has played an important role in nectary evolution during core eudicot speciation. The function or expression of CRC-like genes has been explored in two basal eudicots, Eschscholzia californica and Aquilegia formosa. To further investigate the function of CRC orthologous genes related to evolution of carpel and nectary development in basal eudicots, a CRC ortholog, EsCRC, was isolated and characterized from Epimedium sagittatum (Sieb. and Zucc.) Maxim. A phylogenetic analysis of EsCRC and previously identified CRC-like genes placed EsCRC within the basal eudicot lineage. Gene expression results suggest that EsCRC is involved in the development of sepals and carpels, but not nectaries. Phenotypic complementation of the Arabidopsis mutant crc-1 was achieved by constitutive expression of EsCRC. In addition, over-expression of EsCRC in Arabidopsis and tobacco gave rise to abaxially curled leaves. Transgenic results together with the gene expression analysis suggest that EsCRC may maintain a conserved function in carpel development and also play a novel role related to sepal formation. Absence of EsCRC and ElCRC expression in nectaries further indicates that nectary development in non-core eudicots is unrelated to expression of CRC-like genes.

[Affect regularity of medicinal species and heating time on flavonoids contents in Epimedium cut crude drug]

OBJECTIVE

To study the affect regularity of medicinal species and heating time on flavonoids contents in Epimedium cut crude drug.

METHODS

Setting processing temperature at 170 degrees C, 39 batches Epimedium cut crude drug of different species were heated for 0, 5, 10 minutes. The contents of epimedin A, B, C, icariin, Baohuoside I in different species of Epimedium were determined by HPLC. The variance analysis was used to study the effect of medicinal species and heating time on the contents change of five major flavonoids.

RESULTS

The contents of Epimedin A, B, C were significantly impacted by medicinal species (P < 0.01), and Baohuoside I was also impacted (P < 0. 05). The contents of Epimedin A, B, icariin and Baohuoside I were significantly impacted by heating time (P < 0.01). But the flavonoids contents in Epimedium were not impacted by the interaction effect of heating time and species (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The medicinal species and heat processed time are two important influence factors on the flavonoids contents in Epimedium. The contents of Epimedin A, C are abundant in Epimedium pubescens, and the contents of Epimedin B, Baohuoside I are higher in Epimedium brevicornu. After heating, the contents of Epimedin A, B, C are decreased, and icariin, Baohuoside I are increased. This study provides scientific evidences for variety certification, optimizing processing technology, exploring processing mechanism and clinical rational administration.

[Comparative study on chemical quality of main species of epimedium]

This study was to comprehensively evaluate the chemical quality of main species of epimedium planted in China. The contents of 5 marker compounds, epimedin A, epimedin B, epimedin C, icariin and baohuoside I, as well as total flavonoids of 22 samples of 8 officinal species of Epimedium were determined by HPLC and UV, separately. Some physical and chemical tests (H2O, total ash, acid-insoluble ash and EtOH extract) were also carried out to investigate their chemical qualities. There were significant differences in types and contents of prenyl-flavonoid glycosides such as epimedin A, epimedin B, epimedin C, icariin and baohuoside I in different species, meanwhile, the physical and chemical parameters results also showed that there were obvious differences in chemical quality among different species of epimedium herb. The results provide theoretical and experimental basis for the establishment of comprehensive quality assessment system of epimedium in China.

[Distribution and influencing factors of magnoflorine in Epimedium]

Eighty samples of Epimedium from 29 species and were determined in this study. The content of magnoflorine in leaves range between 0. 003% and 2. 603%. The results showed that the content of magnoflorine was quite stable within species except E. wushanense, E. acuminatum, E. hunanense. Genetic factors might be the main influencing ones. The contents of different parts and different collecting time of the medicinal materials were variable.

[Quality research on Epimedium cut crude drug processed with oil]

OBJECTIVE

To study internal quality of 14 batches Epimedium cut crude drug processed with oil, and to provide informations for quality specification in Chinese Pharmacopeia of 2010 edition.

METHODS

14 batches Epimedium cut crude drug processed with oil were investigated impurity, moisture content, total ash, acid-insoluble ash, extractum and assaying to analyze and evaluate their quality condition.

RESULTS

It is suggested that, in Epimedium cut crude drug processed with oil, the moisture content should not pass 8.0%, total ash should not pass 8.0%, acid-insoluble ash should not pass 2.0%, extractum content should not lower than 12.0%, total flavonoids content should not lower than 5.0%, icariin content should not lower than 0.6%, and Baohuoside I content should not lower than 0.1%.

CONCLUSION

Quality evaluation system of Epimedium cut crude drug processed with oil has been constructed initially, it will offer scientific basis for instituting quality specification in Chinese Pharmacopeia of 2010 edition.

Allozyme diversity and population genetic structure of three medicinal Epimedium species from Hubei

Three Epimedium species, E. pubescens Maxim., E. sagittatum (Sieb. & Zucc.) Maxim., and E. wushanense T. S. Ying, which are sympatrically distributed in the western Hubei Province, have been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for about 2,000 years. Genetic variability and population genetic structure of 11 natural populations of these Epimedium species were investigated using isoelectric focusing in thin-layer polyacrylamide slab gels. Of the 22 enzyme systems prescreened, six coding for 13 loci and 45 alleles were resolved, which were used for analyzing genetic diversity and population structure at both intraspecific and interspecific levels. The results showed that: 1) high levels of genetic diversity were observed in all three species (A = 2.6-3.2, P = 69.2%-84.6%, H(O) = 0.274-0.377, H(E) = 0.282-0.369), which were higher than that of other herbaceous and animal-pollinated species with similar life-history characteristics; 2) there was significant deviation from Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, with one half of the loci showing heterozygote excess and the other homozygote excess, in all populations, suggesting the complicated breeding system of Epimedium species; 3) the low level of intraspecific and interspecific genetic differentiation (G(ST) = 0.0246-0.0409 and 0.0495-0.1213, respectively) indicated a high level of gene flow among populations and close genetic relationship among the three species; and 4) UPGMA cluster analysis further showed that E. pubescens was more closely related to E. sagittatum than to E. wushanense, which was in good agreement with the morphological characters and the recent phylogenetic analysis of these species. On the basis of these results, it was concluded that the mixed breeding system, long-lived perennial life form, ancient evolutionary history, and seed dispersal by ants in Epimedium are responsible for the genetic variation and population structure of these species.

[Studies on fingerprinting and identification of main species of Herba Epimedii]

OBJECTIVE

To establish an effective method for the identification of Herba Epimedii.

METHOD

The HPLC fingerprints of 8 officinal species including 5 species recorded in 'Chinese Pharmacopoeia', which are Epimedium brevicornu, E. sagittatum, E. pubescens, E. koreanum and E. wushanense, and the other 3 species, E. acuminatum, E. myrianthum and E. leptorrhizum, recorded in 'Guizhou Quality Criteria for Traditional Chinese Medical Material and Nationality Medical Material', and of other 24 species in genus Epimedium in China as well had been analyzed and some fingerprinting features for the identification had been pointed out.

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

The fingerprinting features of E. koreanum are rather different from others and can be used for the species identification. There are some common fingerprinting features in the most samples of E. brevicornu, E. acuminatum and E. myrianthum, respectively, and these features are seldom found in the samples of other species. The HPLC fingerprints of E. pubescens and E. leptorrhizum appear steadily among all samples of the species respectively, but it is difficult to distinguish the spcecies from other species with the HPLC fingerprints only. The HPLC fingerprints of E. sagittatum and E. wushanense vary greatly within the species. It is also showed that the quality of Herba Epimedii varied significantly according to the HPLC features.

[Study on the identification of some species of Herba Epimedii with FTIR]

Herba Epimedii, the dried aerial parts of Epimedium brevicornum Maxim., E. sagittatum Maxim., E. pubescens Maxim., E. wushanense T. S. Ying, and E. koreanum Nakai, has been widely used in the field of nourishing the kidney and reinforcing 'Yang' for centuries. The descriptions of external appearance of Herba Epimedii are rather simple, so it is difficult to identify the raw materials of Herba Epimedii only with the traditional methods. In the present paper, the methods of FTIR and the second derivative IR spectra were used for the identification of Herba Epimedii, by which, E. brevicornum Maxim. could be identified from E. koreanum Nakai, and so E. sagittatum (Sieb. et Zucc.) Maxim. from E. acuminatum Franch., as well as E. pubescens Maxim. from E. stellulatum Stearn, E. baojingensis Q. L. Chen et B. M. Yang, E. zhushanense K. F. Wu & S X. Qian and E. myrianthum Stearn. According to the features of the IR spectra of each species, a method based on FTIR for the identification of Herba Epimedii was established, and it conduced to solve the confusion of species of Herba Epimedii.

[Systematic studies on quality of main species of Herba epimedii]

OBJECTIVE

To achieve the quality control of Herba Epimedii, and to evaluate the quality of medical materials of the 8 official species including the 5 species recorded in 'Chinese Pharmacopoeia' including Epimedium brevicornum, E. sagittatum, E. pubescens, E. koreanum and E. wushanense, and the 3 other species (E. acuminatum, E. myrianthum, E. leptorrhizum) recorded in 'Guizhou Quality Criteria for Traditional Chinese Medical Material and Nationality Medical Material', and E. pseudowushanuse (new species) which is used as E. wushanense for a long time.

METHOD

The contents of icariin and total flavonoids of 102 samples of 9 officinal species of Herba Epimedii were determined by HPLC and UV, respectively.

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

The contents of icariin in about 30% of the samples of the 5 species recorded in 'Chinese Pharmacopoeia' were lower than 0.5%, which is acceptable quality recorded in 'Chinese Pharmacopoeia'. Refering the literatures, we suggested the total contents of epimedin A, B, C and icariin (epi-medium multi-glycosides, ABCI) should be established as a new standard instead of the content of icariin. The content of total flavonoids, not less than 5.0%, and ABCI, not less than 1.3%, could be used to evaluate the quality of the above medical materials efficiently.

[Research on quality of Epimedium extract in market]

OBJECTIVE

To review the quality of Epimedium extract in the market.

METHOD

The contents of icariin, epimedin C, sagittatoside B and total flavonoids in Epimedium extracts sold in the market were assayed by the methods of HPLC and UV respectively. HPLC fingerprintings were obtained at the same time.

RESULT

The contents of icariin in most of the extracts are closely similar with the ones labeled by the companies. 3 type chromatograms were classified in all the HPLC fingerprintings, and were corresponded with their raw materials. The contents of epimedin C, sagittatoside B and total flavonoids were different in the samples with the same content of icariin.

CONCLUSION

We can primarily confirm the origin of raw materials by comparing the HPLC fingerprinting of extracts with the ones of materials. The difference of extracts quality mainly comes from the difference of materials. So we suggest that Epimedium extract product should be labeled the origin of materials, and assayed with more compound contents, to ensure the quality stabilization.

Standardization and Evaluation of Botanical Mixtures: Lessons from a Traditional Chinese Herb, Epimedium , with Oestrogenic Properties

Botanical extracts differ from conventional supplements in that they are complicated mixtures of many bioactive compounds. Here we describe our experience with a traditional Chinese medicinal plant Epimedium sp. to illustrate the scientific challenges of firstly, obtaining a standardized product from a complex mixture and secondly, evaluating that product for preclinical and clinical efficacy. In contrast, to its colloquial name 'Horny goat weed' and Internet advertisements as a herbal 'Viagra' for men, extracts of Epimedium are strongly oestrogenic due to the presence of novel potent phytoestrogens of the prenyl-flavone family. Since Epimedium is not cultivated, it was necessary to source for taxonomically identified samples and to authenticate their species by phylogenetic, chemical and bioresponse profiling. The feasibility of using a panel of oestrogen-responsive cell-based bioassays to measure summated oestrogenic effects at close time points for pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) modelling was evaluated. We document proportionate oestrogenic responses in sera of animals fed oestrogenic drugs and botanical extracts, indicating that these target molecule responsive cell-based bioassays may have utility to capture the global effects of the myriad bioactive compounds in botanical extracts, informing the design of rigorous clinical trials for safety and efficacy.

Taxonomic, genetic, chemical and estrogenic characteristics of Epimedium species

To understand the factors contributing to estrogenic properties of extracts from the genus Epimedium L. (Berberidaceae), we performed taxonomic, genetic and chemical characterization on 37 specimens from 18 species and related these to estrogen receptor (ERalpha and ERbeta) bioactivity, as measured by reporter genes in stable human cells. Boot strap values derived from amplified fragment length polymorphisms indicated that specimens of E. koreanum, E. brevicornum, E. myrianthum, E. leishanense, and E. membranaceum were genetically distinct and this was supported by their very similar ERalpha activities. In contrast, specimens from E. pubescens and E. sagittatum were diverse both genetically, chemically and in terms of ERalpha and ERbeta bioactivities. Strikingly, a genetic cluster comprising six rare Epimedium species exhibited strongest ERalpha and ERbeta activity, and this bioactivity was positively correlated with content of trace flavonoid aglycones (kaempferol, apigenin, quercetin, luteolin and breviflavone B). In contrast, there was no association between estrogenic activity and the major flavonol glycoside constituents (icariin and epimedin A-C). Although they exhibited equally strong ERalpha and ERbeta activity, E. koreanum can be clearly differentiated from E. pubescens and E. brevicornum by genetic distance and its significantly lower content of epimedin C. Our morphologic, genetic, chemical and bioactivity profiling provide the basis for the production of extracts with reproducible estrogenic properties. Such reproducibility will be critical for the standardization of Epimedium-based products.

[A review on research of raw material and cut crude drug of Herba epimedii in last ten years]

Researches on taxonomy, resources, cultivation, quality, chemicals and processing of Herba Epimedii in last ten years were reviewed. The taxonomy of Chinese species in "Flora of China (Vo1.29)" (published in 2001) and "The genus Epimedium and other herbaceous Berberidaceae" (published in 2002) were mainly introduced and commented. The quality evaluation of raw material of Herba Epimedii, and effects of distribution, growing time and medicinal part on the quality were summarized.

[Effect of five species of Epimedium on growth of cartilage and proliferation of cartilage cell in vitro]

OBJECTIVE

To observe the effect of Epimedium brevicornum, E. sagittatum, E. koreanum, E, wushanense and E. elongntum on the growth of cartilage and proliferation of cartilage cell in vitro.

METHOD

According to the paired design method, either femur of each chichen embryo was put into the control tube with the medium containing no Epimedium injection, and the other was put into the treated tube with the medium containing 3% Epimedium injection. The length and weight of cultured cartilage and proliferation of cartilage cell (MTY method) were used as the indices to observe the cartilage biological activities of the five species of Epimedium in culture.

RESULT

The results showed that the indices of length, weight and MTT in the E. brevicornum and E. sagittatum group were significantly higher than those in the contral group, but the above indices in groups E. koreanum, E. wushanens and E. elongntum were similar to those of the control with no statistical difference.

CONCLUSION

E. brevicornum and E. sagittatum can improve the growth of cartilage and proliferation of cartilage cell in vitro, and other three Epimedium have not the same effect in this test.

[Species and distribution of the medicinal plants peculiar to Guizhou]

OBJECTIVE

To review the species and distribution of the medicinal plants peculiar to Guizhou and provide evidence for application, protection and collection.

METHOD

Open-air investigation, data collection and specimen identification.

RESULT

More than eighty kinds of the medical plants peculiar to Guizhou have been identified.

CONCLUSION

Guizhou has a diversity of medicinal plants. The area of distribution of most species is restricted and the population is small. Some of the species have higher medicinal and scientific research values.

[Species and geographic distribution of large-flowered taxa of Epimedium in China]

OBJECTIVE

To introduce species and geographic distribution of large-flowered taxa of Epimedium L. in China.

METHODS

Resources investigation and taxonomy study.

RESULTS

There are 27 species large-flowered taxa of Epimedium in China.

CONCLUSION

13 species in Sichuan, 9 species in Hubei, 8 species in Guizhou, 4 species in Hunan, 3 species in Guangxi, 2 species in Chongqing, 2 species in Yunnan, 1 species in Jiangxi, 1 species in Shanxi, 1 species in Jilin, 1 species in Liaoning and 1 species in Heilongjiang.

Characterization of medicinal Epimedium species by 5S rRNA gene spacer sequencing

Sequences of 5S rRNA gene spacer were used to identify Epimedium brevicornu Maxim., E. sagittatum (Sieb. et Zucc.) Maxim., E. wushanense T. S. Ying, E. pubescens Maxim., and E. koreanum Nakai. These species are listed as source plants of Chinese medicine 'Ying Yang Huo' in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. The neighbor-joining method was used in a sequence analysis of Epimedium species. A position-specific nucleotide was found in the 5S rRNA gene spacer for E. pubescens, E. wushanense, and E. brevicornu. A 19-bp deletion was found for E. koreanum in the 5S rRNA gene spacer. E. koreanum was most divergent from the other four endemic Chinese species of Epimedium.

[Determination of epimedin C and icariin in Herba Epimedii by HPLC]

OBJECTIVE

To establish a RP-HPLC method for the determination of epimedin C and icariin in Herba Epimedii.

METHOD

Chromatographic conditions: Hypersil BDS-C18 column, acetonitrice and water containing 0.05% phosphoric acid as gradient eluents, G1315A photodiode array detector at 272 nm.

RESULT

The average recovery rate of epimedin C was 99.7%, RSD 1.5% (n = 9), icariin 102.5%, RSD 1.1% (n=9).

CONCLUSION

The method is reliable, stable and well repeatable. It provides the useful information for quality evaluation.

[Comment on main species of herba epimedii]

OBJECTIVE

To comment on main resource species of Herba Epimedii.

METHOD

Taxonomy, resource investigation and quality evaluation of flavonoid contents were made.

RESULT

7 species of Herba Epimedii having broad distribution were summarized. According the area of their distribution, they were named Epimedium sagittatum, E. brevicornu, E. acuminatum, E. koreanum, E. pubescens, E. leptorrhizum and E. wushanense. Each distribution in detail and icariin and likewise compounds contents of these 7 species were provided. Other 8 Epimedium species much used were proposed. Medicinal characters 15 species were provided in this paper.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of distribution character, resource quantity and growing with other species mingled, it is suggested that 4 main production or purchasing districts in China be divided. The most important district is northeastern district, where only E. koreanum grows there, with the best guality. Northwestern and northern district is the second one, where E. brevicornu, mainly grows with much stable guality. Then it is eastern and southern district, where E. sagittatum grows with the largest quantity but unstable quality. Southwestern district is the last one, mingle species complex and identification important. In Sichuan province, E. acuminatum and E. pubescens are main species, with other 12 species growing there. In Guizhou province, E. acuminatum, E. leptorrhizum and E. wushanense are main species, other 7 species growing there and E. leptorrhizum with poor quality. It is suggested that E. acuminatum be recorded in Chinese Pharmacopoeia.