The exchange of medicine with Japan during the Koryo Dynasty era and its characteristics -A case of 'East Asian Medicine'

In this article, I reviewed the exchange of medicine between the Koryo Dynasty and Japan during the Koryo Dynasty. Compared to the exchange of medicine during the Three Kingdoms or the early Joseon Dynasty, medicine between Korea and Japan was loosely affected each other during the Koryo Dynasty. This characteristic of medical history with Japan during the Koryo Dynasty corresponded to the overall low density of exchanges between the two countries. In this paper, the exchange of medicine during the entire Koryo period was divided into 4 periods, and medical records in Korea and Japan were discussed in terms of medical personnel, medical knowledge, and pharmaceutical materials. During the Koryo Dynasty, Korea was interested in Japan's medical personnel and pharmaceutical materials, and Japan was interested in Korea's medical knowledge and pharmaceutical materials. When limited to the Koryo Dynasty, it is difficult to determine the superiority or inferiority of pharmaceutical materials, medical personnel, and medical knowledge between Korea and Japan. Without frequent contact to compare the level of medical care, each country only accepted the other country's medical care within the necessary range. This means that the exchange of medicine between Koryo and Japan did not flow only in one direction. In addition, I proposed to understand the pre-modern East Asian world, including Korea-Japan relations, by using the concept of political bodies instead of the concept of state. In other words, it is necessary to call the subject of action that independently judges and executes foreign relations while maintaining a high degree of autonomy in decision-making as 'political bodies', and utilizes this concept to interpret the pre-modern East Asian world complexly. The concept of political bodies is also useful for understanding the exchange of medicine among the three East Asian countries.

'The present state and statistical observation of mental patients under home custody', by Kure Shūzō and Kashida Gorō (1918)

This text, dealing with the private confinement of the mentally ill at home, or shitaku kanchi, has often been referred to as a 'classic text' in the history of Japanese psychiatry. Shitaku kanchi was one of the most prevalent methods of treating mental disorders in early twentieth-century Japan. Under the guidance of Kure Shūzō (1865-1932), Kure's assistants at Tokyo University inspected a total of 364 rooms of shitaku kanchi across Japan between 1910 and 1916. This text was published as their final report in 1918. The text also refers to traditional healing practices for mental illnesses found throughout the country. Its abundant descriptions aroused the interest of experts of various disciplines.

Bio-politics and the promotion of traditional herbal medicine in Vietnam

It is often suggested that, in the past 50 years, Vietnam has experienced a traditional medicine ‘revival’ that can be traced back to late President Ho Chi Minh's 1955 appeal ‘to study means of uniting the effects of oriental remedies with those of Europe’. In this article, I demonstrate how traditional herbal medicine came to be recruited as an important component of national efforts to promote the public health of urban and rural populations in Vietnam. Importantly, this has entailed a rejection of a colonial biopolitics that sought to marginalize ‘quackery’ in favour of a postcolonial bio-politics that aims to promote the ‘appropriate’ use of traditional herbal medicines. While the Vietnamese case bears many parallels to other countries in this respect, notably China, Vietnam's ancient history of medicine, postcolonial isolation and extensive health delivery network have resulted in a unique strategy that encourages rural populations to become self-sufficient in the herbal treatment of their most common illnesses.

[Historical Study of the Etymological Form and Translational Process of Gout (Tongfeng,)]

This study aims to address questions regarding the translation of 'gout' into 'tongfeng ()' in East Asia. To this end, the formation process of the origins, 'gout' from Western medicine and 'tongfeng' from Oriental medicine, and the translational process were investigated through the relevant records and literature dating from the 16th century on. Symptoms associated with gout were originally mentioned in ancient Egypt and various terminologies were used to refer to gout, such as podagra, cheiragra and gonogra. The word 'gout', which is derived from Latin, was used for the first time in the 13th century. The reason for this linguistic alteration is thought to be the need for a comprehensive term to cover the various terms for gout in symptomatic body parts, since it can occur concurrently in many joints. However, it took hundreds of years before gout was independently established as a medical term. In oriental medicine, terms describing diseases with features similar to gout include bibing (), lijiefeng (), baihufeng () and tongfeng (). Among them, the concept of 'tongfeng' has been established since the Jin and Yuan dynasties. The cause, prevention and various treatments for tongfeng were proposed throughout the Ming and Qing dynasties. The early translation of gout and tongfeng in East Asia, respectively, is estimated to have occurred in the 18th century. The first literature translating gout in China was 'An English and Chinese Vocabulary in the Court Dialect (yinghua yunfu lijie, )'. From the publication of this book until the late 19th century, gout was translated into an unfamiliar Chinese character 'Jiu feng jiao ()', likely because the translation was done mostly by foreign missionaries at the time, and they created a new word on the basis of Western medicine instead of researching and translating similar diseases in oriental medicine. In Japan, the first book translating gout was 'A Pocket Dictionary of the English and Japanese Language (Eiwa taiyaku shuchin jisho, )', Japan's the first English-Japanese translation dictionary. In this book, gout was translated into tongfeng, a word adopted from oriental medicine. These differences from China are thought to be caused by Rangaku doctors (), who, influenced by oriental medicine in the Jin and Yuan dynasties, played an important role in translating medical terminology at that time.

POLISH STUDIES OF THE MEDICAL TRADITIONS OF THE AINU

Present knowledge of the history of Ainu culture is owed in significant part to Polish Far-East researchers Bronisław Piłsudski (1866-1918) and Wacław Sieroszewski (1858-1945). They were both exiled to Siberia for their patriotic activity at the time where Poles struggled for independence. Bronisław Piłsudski is known for using glass photographic plates and wax recording cylinders for recording the already disappearing culture of the Ainu people. It is thanks to his research that we are able today to trace back the names of over 100 plants that had therapeutic, and as believed by Ainu, also magical power. The plants with the highest therapeutic significance had common characteristics: strong effects, intensive scent and stings. Nowadays, the Ainu people constitute an ethnic minority in Japan (population of over 20 000) and are supported by the Center for Ainu and Indigenous Studies at the Hokkaido University in Sapporo.

Thanaka: traditional Burmese sun protection

Limonia acidissima or Hesperethusa crenulata is a common tree in Southeast Asia. It is indigenous to the Republic of Myanmar (formerly Burma) as well as India, Sri Lanka, Java, and Pakistan. In English, the common names for Limonia acidissima are sandalwood, wood-apple, elephant-apple, monkey fruit, and curd fruit tree. The plant has a number of different names in different languages including bal or bael in Assamese, bael in Bengali, kaitha in Hindi, belingai in Malaysia, and thanaka in Burmese. Unique to the Burmese people, thanaka has been used as a cosmetic product for over 2000 years. Mention of thanaka has been traced back to ancient Burmese lyrics, and relics of equipment used by ancient royalty to grind thanaka can be found in museums.

Onsen (hot springs) in Japan--transforming terrain into healing landscapes

Japan is situated on the Pacific fire rim and has a large number of hot springs (onsens). There are over 27,000 sources of such springs and the country has a well regulated system of onsens. Within this geographical and cultural peculiarities certain unique traditional health practices have evolved, prominent among which is Touji or onsen therapy. The article highlights various healing practices surrounding onsens, institutionalization of these practices, current policy regulations, standards and their contemporary challenges. This research used publicly available information from literature sources and data through expert interviews. It draws attention to the fact that touji has been marginalized in the recent health policies. The study highlights that onsen as a therapeutic landscape has an important role in maintaining health and wellbeing in the country and holds immense value in building social cohesion in local communities. The study points to the need for appropriate studies on the social and symbolic healing elements related to onsen landscapes, as well as the need for developing a comprehensive strategy for strengthening their culturally specific health management roles.

[Imperfections in "Oranda Keiraku Kinmyaku Zoufu Zukai" as a translation: from the perspective of "untranslated terms"]

Comparing "Oranda Keiraku Kinmyaku Zoufu Zukai" with the original edition by Remmelin, I conducted an examination of "untranslated terms." Some "untranslated terms" were omitted without any mark noted in the illustrated reference book of the translation, while others were omitted in the commentary, although their marks appear in the reference book. The analysis of these terms has clarified that the omissions were most likely caused by inappropriate annotation of marks in the translation, or due to the translator's arbitrary judgment of omissions, or because the terms were beyond comprehension by conventional concepts of Eastern medicine and thus entries for their translations were impossible. This article demonstrates the imperfections in the translation of"Oranda Keiraku Kinmyaku Zoufu Zukai" from the viewpoint of"untranslated terms."

Body, gender, and disease: the female breast in late imperial Chinese medicine

This paper examines the diverse ways in which Chinese medical experts historically gendered breast disease as a female ailment. By comparing representations of the female breast from the "Imperially-Compiled Golden Mirror of Medical Learning (Yuzuan yizong jinjian, 1742)" to those from earlier and contemporary texts, this paper analyzes how breast disease was alternately categorized as an ailment of childbearing and as a disease rooted in pathological female emotion. Medical awareness of breast disease in men did somewhat challenge these connections between womanhood and disease. Nevertheless, medical illustrations of women helped to reinforce the idea that breast disease was a characteristically female problem.

Between passion and repression: medical views of demon dreams, demonic fetuses, and female sexual madness in late imperial China

This article argues that early Chinese physicians had already related female ailments to their sexual frustration. Moreover, many physicians paid more attention to non-reproductive women – nuns, widows, and unmarried women – as if they were more prone to suffer from unfulfilled desires and sexual frustration and, as a result, produce the sexual dreams and monstrous births that were described in the medical literature of medieval China as physical ailments. The earlier body-oriented etiology of these female illnesses gradually shifted to emotion-oriented perspectives in late imperial China. In particular, the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century doctors began to categorize women's sexual frustration as "yu disorders" or "love madness." In this article I will show not only the changing medical views of female sexual madness throughout the ages, but how these views were shaped by the societies in which both the doctors and patients were situated.

[Primitive treatment of the Shanghan by Huatuo in the chapter "Shanghanmen" of Qianjinfang]

This report considers the primitive treatment of the "Shanghan" in the chapter "Shanghanmen" of the Qianjinfang. In the primitive etiology of"Shanghan", there were three stages of the recognition of disease pathogenesis, which were first the existence in fear and awe, second the poison, and the last the cold and fever. The etiology seemed to develop into that of the Shanghanlun. Furthermore, from the standpoint of therapeutics, the target for the diseases changed from influences of the external world to the body, as well. Although "Huatuo" used pills and powder formulations which have the effects of a diaphoretic, an emetic and a laxative to reject the outside diseases, he adopted the decoctions for complicated symptoms of diseases. In conclusion, the etiology and therapeutics discussed in the chapter "Shanghanmen" of the Qianjinfang are related to the formation of the Shanghanlun.

[The old transcript "Kosha-hon" quoted by Chusai Shibue in his lecture manuscript for Spiritual Pivot (Lingshu) "Reisu Kogi"]

The details about the old transcript "Kosha-hon" quoted by Chusai Shibue in his Reisu Kogi had remained unspecified. However, the author found that the Kosha-hon is probably now in the possession of the Peking University Library. In addition, through the investigation, the following facts emerged: 1) The date of writing of the transcript can be presumed to be between the Kanbun and Enpo eras in the Edo period. 2) The book, called "Kosha-hon", can be presumed to transcribe the lost version of the text in the group of the twelve volumes of XinKan Huangdi Neijing Lingshu. 3) Shibue left side notes, headed "Kosha-hon Hoki", and he used them for revision, but in fact these notes originated in the Ma Taixuan's Huangdi Neijing Lingshu Zhuzheng Fawei.

[On early red-head-style external medicine and the Confucian physician Mukai Gensho]

In 1656, at the request of the imperial commissioner Inoue Masashige Chikugo-no-kami, the neo-Confucian physician Mukai Genshō compiled medical instructions given to him by the Dejima trading-post surgeon Hans Juriaen Hancke. This was the first text on Western surgery by a trained Japanese specialist. Based on an extensive analysis of related Japanese source material, it is shown that the manuscript Komōryū geka hiyō ("Secret compendium of red-head-style external medicine"), previously considered to represent Mukai's original report, is a rather corrupted version. Other manuscripts, such as Oranda-den geka ruihō ("Arranged formulas of Dutch external medicine"), Oranda geka ihō ("Medical formulas of Dutch external medicine"), or Shōji shinan ("Compass of diagnosis and treatment"), are much more coherent in their contents and fit well with Dutch sources. Furthermore, it is shown how Mukai "identified" and "translated" the Latin names of ulcers, tumours, inflammations, etc., by comparing Hancke's teachings with the most comprehensive Eastern source on surgical matters, the Waìke zhèngzōng (Jap. Geka seisō, "Orthodox manual of external medicine"). His eclectic approach resulted in a combination of Sino-Japanese pathology with Western treatment methods. Mukai had set an example that would dominate the reception of Western medicine in Japan for more than a century. It became widely known as early as 1670, when Yamawaki Dōen included many parts of Mukai's report in his Oranda geka ryōhō ("Good formulas of Dutch external medicine"), the first Japanese book on red-head-style external surgery.

[The trend and prospect of studies of East Asian medical history in Korea]

Studies of East Asian medical history in Korea have progressively accumulated in the last twenty years. First, Korean scholars broadened the focus of research from China-centered research to East Asian research. Studies of Toyo medical history in Korea mainly concentrated on Chinese medical history. Toyo medical history originated from Japanese orientalism and imperialism. Today the studies of East Asian medical history in Korea include Korea, China and Japan, and attempt to deal with East Asia as a single conceptual category. Second, researchers in East Asian medical history are steadily increasing. They study Chinese medical history or Japanese medical history from universities. As they continue their research in academic positions, successive researchers emerge. Third, the number of Korean scholars remains relatively small, but they pursue original research. Their interests are in the discourse of East Asian medical history, colonial modernity, environmental history, oral history, and history of disease.

European 18th-century obstetrical pioneers in Japan: a new light in the empire of the sun

From the second half of the 18th century, Japanese physicians incorporated concepts of European medicine in their publications. Dutch physicians had a pivotal role in this process, facilitated by their trade relations in Deshima, near Nagasaki. This paper focuses on the influence of later Dutch editions (probably the 1765 edition) of Hendrik van Deventer's pioneer work Nieuw Ligt (a New Light) on Japanese obstetrics, especially on Katakura Kakuryō's publication in 1799 of Sanka Hatsumō (Enlightenment of Obstetrics).

[Japan's Oriental medicine policy in colonial Korea]

During its colonization of Korea, the Japanese Empire used the Western medicine as a tool for advertising its advanced culture. However, the medical workforce available in Korea was insufficient. The Rule for Uisaeng (Oriental medicine practitioner) was an ordinance decreed in 1913 with a purpose of supplementing the medical workforce. As the Oriental medicine practitioners became official medical workforce, the Japanese Empire could mobilize them in a hygienic administration such as prevention of epidemics. The Uisaengs also tried to adapt themselves to the colonial environment by studying Western medicines. However, the distrust of the Japanese Empire in Oriental medicine continued until 1920s. Manchurian Incident in 1931 brought a change. As the relationship with China aggravated, the provision of medical herb became unstable and the Japanese Empire began to encourage using Oriental medical herb following the Movement for Improving Rural Region Economy. An attempt of the Japanese Empire to utilize the medical herb resulted in a plan to make the Oriental medical herb officinal. The goal was to organize and standardize the Oriental medical herb through a research by the Medical Herb Investigation Committee. However, the medical herb on the table was the one verified by the Western medicine. That is, it was not a traditional medical herb that uses the original theory of Oriental medicine. There was a minority opinion arguing that they should study the Oriental medicine itself. However, that argument was also based on the theory and principles of the Western medicine. Even though an attempt to make full use of Uisaengs expanded as the war continued, the major medical workforce that the Japanese Empire relied on was those trained in Western medicine. In other words, the Japanese Empire did not give a full credit to the Oriental medicine during the colonial era. During the colonization, Japanese Empire used Oriental medicine under the nominal reason of lack of medical workforces. In early 1930s, a policy supporting usage of Oriental medical herb was selected. However, it does not mean that the change in policy encouraged Oriental medicine since the medical herb that the Japanese Empire supported was those that were organized and categorized according to the principles in Western medicine.

[Historical consideration of tea trees and tea flowers, especially regarding the use of tea flowers as food]

Not only tea leaves, but also many kinds of plants have been used as tea, even those plants not belonging to Camellia sinensis, and they should be called "tea out of tea" in the Lucidophyllous forest zone. Generally, the tea leaf is drank after being decocted (almost boiled). The growth distribution of tea ranges in a belt-like zone of 30-40 degrees north latitude. Therefore, tea might have grown wild as "YAMACHA (mountain tea)" from ancient times in Japan as well as China. The first recored of tea drinking in Japan is the ceremony of "GYOUCHA" at the Imperial Court of the Emperor SHOUMU in 729. On the other hand, the oldest book about tea in China (CHAKYOU) was written in 770. Therefore, it seems that tea drinking started at nearly the same time in both countries. Tea was dispensed as medical supplies by Chinese medicinal prescription (SENKYUCHACHOUSAN) in Japan, but in China, tea was used as powdered medicine for drinking (SEICHA). However, the leaf of a certain plant used as "tea out of tea," was applied as a galenical preparation for traditional Chinese medicinal constitution. However, it is not possible to judge whether or not there was adaptability in Chinese medicine theory. In Japan, when tea was first consumed as a food, other than a few exceptions tea leaves were used as a coarse tea (BANCHA) until the latter half of the Meiji period. Mixing in air by stirring a tea solution, and at the same time, letting tea match with hot water. It was wisdom to improve the taste. As a result, in order to make bubble well, both of the condition and technique were devised. One of the approaches was to add the dried plant of Leguminosae (saponin) or tea flower (saponin), when "BANCHA" was decorted. And also tools such as a bamboo tea whisk (CHASEN) as well as bowl (GOROHACHI-CHAWAN), were conceived. "FURICHA" was served as a medicine by KUUYASHOUNIN in Japan in 951. Afterwards, the prayer ceremonies at shrines and temples used CHARAZU," showing the custom to serve tea in 1400. The custom of tea serving continues today, and the tea flower continues to be used according to the demand. After that, it seems that "FURICHA" (tea with bubbles) continued to be used for 640 years, until 1590 (AZUCHI-MOMOYAMA period) because MANCHARAZU was regarded as important in religion. Then, it is believed that the customs of "BOTEBOTECHA" and/or"BATABATACHA" succeeded traditionally. The culture of both tea drinking and cooking, each development course, existed respectively from the relations of tea and food. The state that was accompanied with neither tea nor cooking, such as "KISHUU-CHAGAYU (tea gruel)" and BOTEBOTECHA, continued for a while, but it was combined together as "ICHIJUU-ICHISSA (one soup one tea)" of "KAISEKIRYOURI (tea-ceremony dish)." It is noteworthy that the tea flower is used as preserved food seasoned with "MISO (fermented soybean paste)" and "TSUKUDANI (boiled food in sweetened soy sauce)." Even though old documents about the use of tea flowers as food in China were not found, according to literature in the past ten years, seven descriptions were found that the tea flower was used for food provided alone or with black tea, oolong tea or green tea. As for tea leaves and tea flowers being used as medicine, drink or food in Japan, as well as in neighboring countries which belong to the Lucidophyllous forest zone. The process that they were regarded as important with the time was investigated and reported here.

[Traditional medicine seen from the perspective of Western medicine during the late 19th and early 20th century in Korea]

From the 18th century traditional medicine began to be criticised by some of Korean intellectuals who attained the knowledge of Western medicine through the imported books on Western science. In the early 20th century, Western medical doctors in Korea generally had critical attitude toward traditional medicine. Their critical opinions on traditional medicine are typically recognizable in the debate between two camps that occurred in 1930s. However, some exceptional doctors such as Chang Ki-moo and Bang Hap-shin had special interest in traditional medicine despite their education in Western medicine. It was their clinical experience of the limitation of Western medicine which led them to study traditional medicine. Both of them were particularly attracted by the School of Old Prescriptions, which was a school of Japanese traditional medicine. The medical theory of the school was characterized by the simplification of vague and complicated theory of traditional medicine. The school held the theory that all diseases are caused by one poison. Consequently, treatment of all diseases consists in eliminating the poison. He also put forward a theory of one prescription for one disease, and therefore the same remedy should be applied to a disease with the same cause even though it might manifest various symptoms. Given the fact that their theory of diseases is very similar to that of Western medicine, it is understandable that they were attracted to the School of Old Prescriptions. As the doctors trained in Western medicine, they were possibly more familiar with the doctrine of the School of Old Prescriptions than the traditional medicine based on Yin Yang and Five-Phase theory.

[New trends of medicine manifested at Naeuiwon in the late Chosun period]

Tonifying method has been used to treat various types of deficiency syndrome in traditional Korean medicine. Tonifying medicinal including ginseng and deer horns is one of the various methods of the treatments, but they are recognized as a representative of traditional Korean remedies nowadays in Korea. That is concerned with the new trends of medicine manifested at Naeuiwon (Royal Infirmary) in the late Chosun period. The period that manifested the tonifying method obviously was the reign of King Youngjo (r.1724-1776). King Youngjo who lived longest among Chosun kings considered tonifying yang very important in keeping him healthy. He had taken a large quantity of ginseng, he and others considered the reason for his longevity as taking ginseng. From that time, the method of tonifying yang became one of the principles in health care and treatment as well. In the 19th century, the theory of tonifying method had been changed, in that tonifying yin was considered more important among Naeuiwon physicians. Tonifying yang alone was thought to be harmful because of its warm and dry nature. The main cause of prevalence of tonifying method in Naeuiwon was the fact that it was safe and had little side effects. The method of health care and treatments of the kings was considered as an ideal model by the ordinary people at that time. The new trends of medicine manifested at Naeuiwon in the late Chosun period had a strong influence on traditional Korean medicine, which emphasized the importance of tonifying method.

Lãn Ong (Lê Hũ'u Trác, 1720-91) and the Vietnamese medical tradition

The 18th-century physician Hai Thu'o'ng Lãn Ong is the most celebrated practitioner of Vietnamese medicine. He wrote medical texts and poetry that included, unusually for the time, an autobiographical element and he is the first Vietnamese physician for whom significant biographical information is available. Educated in classical Chinese medicine, he incorporated into the pharmacopoeia traditional herbal remedies indigenous to Vietnam. Despite his inclination to pursue a secluded life, he became the foremost physician of his day and was summoned to the corrupt court of the Trinh Lords in Hanoi, of which he left a revealing account. Since the 19th century his writings have been central to the canon of traditional Vietnamese medicine.

Historical difference between traditional Korean medicine and traditional Chinese medicine

BACKGROUND

Although traditional Korean medicine (TKM) has been influenced by traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), it has developed distinctive features. Around the tenth century, Chinese medical books were introduced to Korea. In those days, Koreans started movement to develop its own medical system.

METHODS

We reviewed Korean and Chinese medical literatures, and analysed the characteristics between two medical systems.

RESULTS

In the early 17th century, Dongeuibogam was published by Dr Joon Hur. He provided a turning point to establish Korean medical system independent from TCM. TKM emphasizes specific characteristics of the individual who suffered from the disease, rather than single symptom. The concept was elaborated by Dr Jae Ma Lee who published Dongeuisusaebowon in the early 20th century.

CONCLUSION

Through historical development, TKM has established the unique characteristic and modality as the whole-person-centered medicine.

Of germs, public hygiene, and the healthy body: the making of the medicalizing state in Thailand

The historical study of Western medicine in nineteenth-century Siam has emphasized the dichotomy between Western medicine and traditional Thai medical practice. The former is often represented as a monolith, and the epistemological transformation of Western medicine during the nineteenth century is glossed over without sufficient attention. Pasteurian medicine, especially the idea of germs, was introduced to Siam by the American missionary Dan Beach Bradley. Its introduction spurred a process of negotiation with both pre-Pasteurian Western and traditional Thai medicine. In its pre-Pasteurian and Pasteurian variants, Western medicine was constituted as a new medical practice and disciplinary regime in Siam. As a discursive instrument of state hegemony, the ideas, structures, policies, and institutions of Western medicine furthered the understanding and management of virulent epidemics, the institution of the sanitary system, the shaping of new concepts of population and a healthy workforce, and not least, the framing of a medicalizing project to police people's bodies pursued by the Thai state in the 1930s.

[Chronological table-I of public medical care, medicine and pharmacy in Korea]

S. Miki wrote a valuable chronological table of Korean medical events from the origin of the country up until 1945 in Japanese, and then published the book in 1985. In 1996, Q.J. Kim made a new chronological table of public medical care in Korea from the origin of the country up until 1994 in Hangul. So, J.H. Kim translated the new table into Japanese, and J. Okuda added some important medical and pharmaceutical events to the table. The revised chronological table has been divided into two parts. This first report covers the history from the origin of the country up until 1659 A.D.

[Research on the original plants of Gou-wen and Ye-Ge--and the herbological thoughts of Jin]

Ye-Ge exists in the SHOOSOUIN, and the herbal origin was decided as Gelsemium elegans Bentham. On the other hand, Gou-Wen may be a general term that means poison plants as well as Jin. At least four kinds of Gou-Wen were known in ancient times: three herbs and one wood-like plant. The shi-leaf Gou-Wen may be Gelsemium elegans Bentham, in short, the same as Ye-Ge. The huang jing-leaf Gou-Wen may be Croomia heterosepala. The qin-leaf Gou-Wen may be Cicuta virosa L. The wood-like Gou-Wen may be Coriaria nepalensis Wall.

[Chronological table-II of public medical care, medicine and pharmacy in Korea]

The first report from the origin of Korea up until 1659 A.D. appeared previously in this journal. The chronological table of Q.J. Kim from 1660 A.D. to 1994 A.D. was partly revised by adding medical and pharmaceutical events, including the recent Korean history of pharmaceutical education and that of Korean pharmacists, for Japanese pharmacists. In this paper, Table-II, a concise history of public medical care, medicine and pharmacy from 1600 A.D. to present is reported.

[A study on the general public understanding and utilization of Korean traditional medicine in colonial period]

During Colonial Period, Western Medicine was introduced, and due to the lean-to-one-side policy by the Japanese, Western Medicine became the mainstream medical science while Oriental Medicine was pushed to the outskirts. The general public in colonial period got help from medical profession after they tried something they could do at home when they got sick or injured. There were differences to get help from western or traditional medicine according to their economic status, living area, and educational status, the character of disease or injury, etc. In general, public made more use of traditional medicine than western medicine. Although the traditional medicine had better regional and economic approach, there was another important factor that made the general public prefer traditional medicine to western medicine. The general public had strong belief in the treatment of traditional medicine. There was no strong belief that western medicine was better in scientific ground and modern than oriental medicine. In spite of their general preference for traditional medicine, the general public had some conflict in everyday choice on medicine. The belief of relatives, personal experience, economic status, the character of the disease made the conflict possible. Sometime the general public chose both traditional and western medicine altogether.

[The gaze of the others: how the Western medical missionaries viewed the traditional Korean medicine]

It is generally known that the Western medical missionaries played an important role in introducing Western medicine into Korea. However, little is known about their role in introducing traditional medicine of Korea to the Western world. The present paper aims at showing various efforts of the Western medical missionaries to understand the Korean traditional medicine and to introduce it to the Western world. Allen payed attention to the clinical effect and commercial value of the Ginseng; Busteed gave anthropological descriptions of the traditional medical practice; Landis translated a part of the most cherished medical textbook of Korean traditional medicine Dong-Eui-Bo-Gam (see text) into English; Mills, along with his colleagues in Severance Union Medical College, tried more scientific approaches toward the traditional medicine. All these various efforts proves that the attitudes of the Western medical missionaries cannot be summarized as one simplistic view, that is, the orientalism, a term which is quite en vogue today. Of course, we cannot deny that there may be such elements, but to simplify the whole history as such does not only reflect the fact, but also miss a lot of things to be reflected in history.

[The academic trend of Oriental medicine during the Japanese colonial period as observed through the publication of medical books]

This thesis examines the academical trend of Oriental Medicine in the Japanese colonial period observed through medical books published during the Japanese colonial period. This is a period in which Western Medicine was introduced, and due to the lean-to-one-side policy by the Japanese, Western Medicine became the mainstream medical science while Oriental Medicine was pushed to the outskirts. Even after all this, the academic activity was flourishing during this period compared to any other periods. This article is divided into various chapters each with its own theme in order to understand the academic trend of Oriental Medicine during the Japanese colonial period. Focusing on the publication of medical books, this article is divided and observed according to various themes such as the study of Dong-Eui-Bo-Gam (see text), the study of Bang-Yak-Hap-Pyeun (see text), the study of Sang-Han-Ron (see text), the study of Sa-sang (see text) constitutional medicine, the study of Eui-Hak-Ip-Mun (see text), the study about Bu-Yang-Ron (see text), On-Bo-Ron (see text), and pediatrics, compromise between Western and Oriental Medicine, the study of experience medicine, the study of acupuncture and moxibustion, and etc.

[The association between the medical arts of Japan, Korea, and Ming Dynasty China during Toyotomi Hideyoshi's War]

Traditional Korean medicine's pronounced impact on Japan came about as a result of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's war on Korea in the late 16th century. The influences of Korean medicine on Japan were caused by the introduction not only of a large number of medical books printed in the Yi dynasty and the techniques of publication but also those of the people of talent. We researched one doctor who came to Japan during the war of the Bunroku periods. The name of the doctor was Kintokuho. He learned medicine from a Chinese, Unkai(YunHai). He caused the iatrogenic diseases in the first year and so he changed his medical prescription to fit Japanese. After this, his treatment produced a curative effect. After his death, his art of medicine was passed on to his pupils.

[The life of medical historian Miki Sakae, and the "history of Korean medicine and of diseases in Korea"]

Miki Sakae was a Medical historian, who is well known for his studies of Korean medicine. He authored the renowned trilogy which dealt with subjects of Korean medicine and diseases, namely the "History of Korean Medicine and of Diseases in Korea", "Bibliography of Korean Medical Books", and "The Chronological Table of Medical Events in Korea"), during the Japanese Occupation period. He was born in 1903 in Osaka, Japan, and graduated from the Kyushu College of Medicine. In 1928 he was assigned to the Gyeongseong Imperial University's College of Medicine as a professor, and also served as Chief of the Suweon Provincial Hospital while he was staying in Korea. During the 18-year period of his stay, he widely collected medical books of Korea and also thoroughly studied them. He returned to Japan in 1944 due to the illness of his father, but continued his studies of Korean medicine, and in 1955 published the "History of Korean Medicine and of Diseases in Korea" for the first time. Following such accomplishment, "Bibliography of Korean Medical Books" was published in 1956, the next year, and finally "The Chronological Table of Medical Events in Korea" was published a few decades later, in 1985. Since the 1950s, aside of continuing to study and author the history of Korean medicine, he had also engaged himself in a joint effort associated with the members of the Medical History Association of Japan (which also included the alumni of the Kyushu College of Medicine) in a group study of Huseya Soteki, the first Japanese Experimental Physiologist. He also attempted at establishing an academic branch which could be referred to as Experimental Historical Studies of Medicine, by recreating the experiments of Huseya Soteki with his own son. Later he also expanded his interest and studies to the medical history of the world and also the area of Medical Ethics. But his ultimate interest and passion were always targeted at the Medicine of Korea, and the one consistent position he maintained during his entire life regarding the Korean medicine, was that 'One can only talk about the medicine of China and Japan when he or she is well versed in the medicine of Korea'. And his lifetime achievement, "History of Korean Medicine and of Diseases in Korea" was authored upon the basis established by such conviction and philosophy. First, in this book the perspective of Cultural Transmission, which considers the flow of cultural qualities and assets to be ordinarily flowing from highly developed regions to less developed ones, was firmly maintained. He argued that the medicine of China had to pass through the Korean peninsula to reach Japan. Second, he suggested that studies of medicine and diseases could only be fully and thoroughly understood when it is approached not only from the perspective devised by medical historical studies but also from perspectives devised for general and total historical examination of human life events. And third, he argued that all historical studies should be based upon proofs and evidences, and the 'development' factor of a particular type of studies or practices should be measured by whether that study or practice has reached or accomplished the level of Western modern science. Demonstrating such conviction, out of Korean traditional medical practices he particularly examined the medical procedures of treating tumors or regulations and procedures developed for forensic medicine, which he considered superior to or at least at the same level with Western medicine. In his final years he was forced to battle cancer, but he refused to be hospitalized. Instead, he exhibited his firm belief that medicine and medical practices which believe in the ultimate power of human body and soul are what the practitioners should pursue in order to acquire the very core of medicine. He died in 1992, at home, surrounded by his family. He is known to have always uttered that one of the most celebrated Medical books of Korea, the "Dongeui Bogam" authored by Heo Jun, was a true example of a book containing 'Medicine Based upon Human Body and Soul'. A huge portrait of Heo Jun is reported to have been hung at the living room of his house all the time.

[The medical theory of Lee Je-ma and its character]

Lee Je-ma 1837-1900) was a prominent scholar as well as an Korean physician. classified every people into four distinctive types: greater yang [tai yang] person, lesser yin [shao yin] person, greater yin [tai yin] person, lesser yin [shao yin] person. This theory would dictate proper treatment for each type in accordance with individual differences of physical and temperament features. Using these four types he created The Medical Science of Four Types. This article is intended to look into the connection between Lee Je-Ma's 'The Medical Science of Four Types' and 'The Modern' with organizing his ideas about the human body and the human being. Through The Modern, the theory of human being underwent a complete change. Human being in The Premodern, which was determined by sex, age and social status has been changed to the individual human being, which is featured by equality. Lee Je-Ma's medical theory of The Medical Science of Four Types would be analyzed as follow. His concept of human body is oriented toward observable objectivity. But on the other hand, it still remains transcendent status of medical science, which is subordinated by philosophy. According to Lee Je-Ma's theory of human being, human is an equal individual in a modern way of thinking, not as a part of hierarchical group. But on the other hand, it still remains incomplete from getting rid of morality aspect that includes virtue and vice in the concept of human body. The common factors in Lee Je-Ma's ideas about the human body and the human being is 'Dualism of mind and body that means all kinds of status and results depends on each individual. As is stated above, Lee Je-Ma's medical theory has many aspects of The Modern and it proves that Korean traditional medicine could be modernized by itself.

[Oriental and European medicine in the local historian Masamichi Teraishi's book]

There was a prevalence of beriberi in the Meiji era. We found articles about Souhaku ASADA, Syouan TOUDA and Jun MATSUMOTO in the Toukayogeidan, written by Masamichi TERAISHI. The book tells about the treatment and its side effects. This book reveals that Doumei YAKAZU's investigation was correct. It is of interest to learn from this book how one patient consulted doctors in the Meiji era and talked about the treatment and side effects of the doctors.

[What's the original concept of meridian and acupuncture point in oriental medicine?--A perspective of medical history]

Meridian and acupuncture point (MAP) is a core theory of acupuncture and essential building blocks of oriental medicine. There still continue theoretic or experimental arguments and controversies on the origination or original concept of MAP, without any definite approval or disapproval of a hypothesis. The theory of MAP is an historic product and has never been outside of historic influences. This study discusses the original concept of meridian and acupuncture point theory and its historical evolution, based on the review of classic literatures on meridian including the mawangdui medical texts of Han dynasty. The concept of MAP served as a empirical reference system in clinical settings irrespective of the anatomical entity of MAP.

[Encounters of the Korean body with the traditional and modern medical systems]

The body has been an intense focus of attention since the 1990s both in academic and mundane discourse. In philosophy, literature critique, sociology and anthropology the body has been found to have various implications and auras around it.I try to explain the body as the subject of medicine rather philosophically, in terms of nature, culture and phenomena. And then I look into the Korean body of the late 19th century when western biomedicine was first introduced. The Korean body was encountering traditional and modern biomedical medicines in three different spaces i.e., corporal, social and moral. The corporal space was the space into which direct intervention such as surgery was performed. The body was also situated in the social space where imperative social measures such as sanitation and sterilization was imposed. The body also had the moral space, invasion into which evoked great moral upheaval. It was when the government ordered the public to cut the long and bound hair, which had long been the symbol of their identity. Reflecting upon the philosophical perspectives and examining concrete cases of the encounters of the body with the two medical systems, I argue that we should have new perspectives that embodies the historical and phenomenological experiences of the body.

[Traditional medicine under Japanese rule after 1930s]

Japan, which occupied Korea from 1910 through the end of World War II, transformed traditional medicine. Japanese colonialists propagandized the "benefits of modern civilization such as western medicine" and rejected the advantages of traditional medicine. This bias against Korean traditional medicine mirrored the government's rejection of its own traditional medicine. So, Korean traditional medicine was marginalized in the national health care system: traditional doctors were excluded from public institutions and references to traditional medicine were purged from school textbooks and newspapers. The wars that Japan waged between 1931 and 1944 effected a favorable change toward traditional medicines, however. The wars created a severe shortage of drugs and medical personnel. Thus the colonial government was eager for Koreans to cultivate and gather herbal drugs; it also built a large research institute for herbalism at the Keijo Imperial University in 1938. The colonial government made pharmacopoeia for traditional herbal drugs including plant and animal drugs from 1937 to 1942, independently from Japan. Under these conditions, the prestige of traditional medicine was greatly improved. Influential newspapers and magazines covered the traditional medicine and public lectures on traditional medicine drew large audiences. The wartime government abandoned its opposition to traditional medicine, and appointed a traditional practitioner to the staff of the public hospital in 1934. Moreover, the government allowed the association of the traditional medical doctors in Seoul to train three hundred more practitioners between 1937 and 1942. Japanese colonial policy toward traditional medicine reflected the contradiction between modernizing ideology and the reality of poor colonial medical care. Japanese propaganda promised that the colonial regime would provide more advanced medicine to Korea, but the promise was an empty one. In this situation, traditional medical doctors and herbalists once again shouldered the main responsibility for the health of the Korean people.

Orientalism in Euro-American and Indian psychology: historical representations of "natives" in Colonial and postcolonial contexts

The author examines the historical role of Euro-American psychology in constructing Orientalist representations of the natives who were colonized by the European colonial powers. In particular, the author demonstrates how the power to represent the non-Western "Other" has always resided, and still continues to reside, primarily with psychologists working in Europe and America. It is argued that the theoretical frameworks that are used to represent non-Westerners in contemporary times continue to emerge from Euro-American psychology. Finally, the author discusses how non-Western psychologists internalized these Orientalist images and how such a move has led to a virtual abandonment of pursuing "native" forms of indigenous psychologies in Third World psychology departments.

[Medicine and orientalism in the late nineteenth century Korea]

The paper investigates medical missionaries that exerted a significant role in establishing Western medicine in the late nineteenth century Chosun, in relation to orientalism, an academically popularized concept introduced by Edward Said. Historical analysis is focused on several important medical missionaries such as Horace N. Allen, William B. Scranton, John W. Heron, C. C. Vinton, and Oliver R. Avison to explain how their activism as medical missionary contributed to the formation of medical orientalism in which Western medicine was 'taught, studied, administered, and judged' in that period. In addition, I explore into how medical orientalism was in service of Japanese imperialism by showing that medical missionaries had to be under imperial surveillance by Japanese colonizers. The article explores the medical system of the Koryo Dynasty period and its social characteristics. First, the structure of medical system and roles of medical institutions during the Koryo Dynasty period will be summarized. Then the characteristics of the medical system will be identified through exploring the principles of its formation in a view of social recognition of medical care and a view of social recognition of medical care and a view of public policy.

[A revaluation of the late Dr. Noriyuki Sugihara in Korea]

We investigate the achievements in pharmacology and administration in the field of traditional Korean and Kampo medicines by Dr. N. Sugihara. Dr. Sugihara became a professor of the 2nd dept. of pharmacology, School of Medicine, Keijo University of Seoul in 1926. Since then, until 1946, he was involved in almost all the projects related to traditional medicine in Korea and Manchuria. Also he founded several research centers in Korea, such as the Natural Product Research Institute of Keijo University (the present Natural Product Research Institute of Seoul National University). We confirm Dr. Sugihara's contribution to traditional medicine, based on an investigations of his academic records from his disciples in Korea and Japan, including the former director of Natural Product Research Institute.

[A study of the licensing system in Korean Oriental medicine]

In 1952, the Licensing System of Korean Oriental Practitioners was established by law and practiced until now. It was the most important aspect of the Professionalization of Korean Oriental medicine, and it also affected other aspects of the Professionalization of Korean Oriental medicine, such as the standardization of knowledge, the strengthening of its organization, and the development of an occupational ideology. The Licensing System of Korean Oriental Practitioners came about as a result of conflicts between the National Assembly, governmental agencies, and medical doctors. The range of Korean Oriental Practitioners Licensing is partially limited, especially with respect to certifying someone as a public health doctor and in conferring the right to direct medical technicians. However, the limitations have been reduced gradually.