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Alobaidii WA, Abdullah DA, Alkatab YNM, Ali SA, Ola-Fadunsin SD, Gimba FI. The first molecular investigation of Besnoitia besnoiti infections among cattle in Mosul, Iraq. Mol Biol Rep 2024; 51:585. [PMID: 38683464 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-024-09377-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bovine besnoitiosis (elephant skin disease) caused by Besnoitia besnoiti is a costly endemic disease in the Middle East, Asia, and tropical and subtropical Africa and is also emerging as a significant problem in Europe. This study is aimed at determining the prevalence of B. besnoiti in blood and skin biopsies of cattle as well as evaluating the risk factors associated with the infection among cattle in Mosul, Iraq. METHODS AND RESULTS To achieve this aim, four hundred and sixty apparently healthy cattle of different breeds, ages, and sexes were sampled from seven different locations in Mosul, Iraq. Blood and skin biopsies were carefully collected from each cattle, and these samples were subjected to molecular analysis. The detection of B. besnoiti was molecularly confirmed by the presence of 231 bp of ITS-1 in the rDNA gene of the protozoan. Besnoitia besnoiti DNA was present in 74 (16.09%; 95% CI = 13.01-19.72) and 49 (10.65%; 95% CI = 8.15-13.80) of the blood and skin biopsies, respectively, that were analyzed. Age, breed, and sex were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with the occurrence of B. besnoiti among cattle in the study area. CONCLUSIONS Findings from this study will serve as baseline data in the epidemiology, prevention, and control of the protozoan among cattle in Iraq.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wasan Amjad Alobaidii
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq
| | - Donea Abdulrazak Abdullah
- Department of Animal Production Techniques, Northern Technical University, Mosul, Iraq
- Center of Technical Research, Northern Technical University, Mosul, Iraq
| | | | - Shahad Abbas Ali
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Kirkuk, Mosul, Iraq
| | - Shola David Ola-Fadunsin
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ilorin, PMB 1515, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.
| | - Fufa Ido Gimba
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria
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Dubey JP, de Araujo LS, Gupta A, Kwok OCH, Lovallo MJ. SARCOCYSTIS AND OTHER PARASITES IN FECES OF BOBCATS (LYNX RUFUS) FROM MISSISSIPPI. J Parasitol 2023; 109:638-642. [PMID: 38151049 DOI: 10.1645/23-95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Rectal contents of 56 adult bobcats (Lynx rufus) in 2014 and 2017 from remote areas of Mississippi were examined microscopically for parasite stages after the sugar flotation method. Among the helminths, eggs/larvae found were: Paragonimus sp. in 12, Toxocara cati-like in 16, trichurid-capillarid-like in 3, hookworms in 27, and lungworms in 28. Among the protozoa, oocysts/cysts found were: Cystoisospora felis-like in 2, Cystoisospora rivolta-like in 4, Cryptosporidium sp. in 1, and Giardia sp. in 1. Additionally, numerous Sarcocystis sporocysts were detected in the feces of 12 bobcats; sporocysts were described morphologically. The status of C. felis derived from the bobcat and other wild felids is reviewed and compared with C. felis from the domestic cat. It is the first record of C. rivolta from the bobcat. The presence of eggs of Paragonimus sp. and T. cati in feces of 21.4% and 28.5%, respectively, suggests a role for the bobcat in the dissemination of these zoonotic helminths in the environment in the wild. Taxonomy of coccidia of wild Felidae is discussed and Isospora lyncisLevine and Ivens, 1981 from the Lynx is now regarded as a species inquirenda.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 1001, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - Larissa S de Araujo
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 1001, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - Aditya Gupta
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 1001, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - Oliver C H Kwok
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 1001, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - Matthew J Lovallo
- Game Mammals Section, Bureau of Wildlife Management, Pennsylvania Game Commission, 2001 Elmerton Avenue, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17110
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Villa L, Gazzonis AL, Zanzani SA, Perlotti C, Sironi G, Manfredi MT. Bovine besnoitiosis in an endemically infected dairy cattle herd in Italy: serological and clinical observations, risk factors, and effects on reproductive and productive performances. Parasitol Res 2019; 118:3459-3468. [PMID: 31659452 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06501-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis (Besnoitia besnoiti) is an emerging parasitic disease of cattle in Europe. This study reports a case of bovine besnoitiosis in a dairy farm housing 217 cattle in Italy. A serological screening was performed on the whole herd using the recommended approach of ELISA and confirmatory Western Blot. Seropositive animals were clinically examined to reveal symptoms and lesions of besnoitiosis. Risk factors and the effects of the parasite infection on reproductive and productive performances were evaluated. Histopathology and molecular analyses on tissues from a slaughtered cow affected by the chronic phase of the disease were carried out. An overall seroprevalence of 23.5%, which increased up to 43.5% considering only cows, was recorded. Clinical examination of 33 of the seropositive cows evidenced the presence of tissue cysts in at least one of the typical localizations (sclera, vulva, or skin) in 25 animals. Statistical analysis did not evidence any significative impact of the parasite infection on herd efficiency; however, a decrease of productive parameters was recorded in cows showing cutaneous cysts. Concerning the chronically affected cow, histopathology revealed B. besnoiti tissue cysts in the skin of the neck, rump, hind legs, eyelid and vulva, in the muzzle, in mucosal membranes of the upper respiratory tract, and in the lungs. Parasite DNA was detected also in masseter muscles, tonsils, mediastinal lymph nodes, liver, cardiac muscle, aorta wall, ovaries, uterus, and vulva. Bovine besnoitiosis continues to spread in the Italian cattle population. Breeders and veterinarians should be aware of this parasitic disease, and control programs should be developed based on surveillance through a diagnostic procedure including both clinical examination and laboratory tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Villa
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell'Università 6, 26900, Lodi, Italy.
| | - Alessia Libera Gazzonis
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell'Università 6, 26900, Lodi, Italy
| | - Sergio Aurelio Zanzani
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell'Università 6, 26900, Lodi, Italy
| | - Chiara Perlotti
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell'Università 6, 26900, Lodi, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Sironi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell'Università 6, 26900, Lodi, Italy
| | - Maria Teresa Manfredi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell'Università 6, 26900, Lodi, Italy
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Dubey JP, Lindsay DS. New Observations Allowing the Differentiation of Late Asexual Stages of Cystoisospora canis from Developing Microgamonts in the Intestines of Experimentally Infected Dogs. J Parasitol 2019; 105:345-350. [PMID: 31021735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The coccidian parasite Cystoisospora canis (syn. Isospora canis) can cause clinical disease in dogs. Three generations of meronts are reported to occur in the small intestine of experimentally infected dogs before gametogony and oocyst formation. Oocyst excretion in the feces occurs at 9 to 11 days post-inoculation (PI). We examined the late asexual and sexual development of C. canis in 2 dogs necropsied 10 days after oral inoculation with 100,000 sporulated C. canis oocysts; both dogs had excreted oocysts 9 days PI. Asexual and sexual stages were seen in the lamina propria, throughout the small intestine in sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin from both dogs. In other studies of the C. canis life cycle, little attention has been given to distinguishing the last asexual generation of meronts and early microgamonts that can appear similar due to their stage of maturation and both having multiple nuclei. Here we report newly identified features of developing meronts and microgamonts and their distinction from each other by using sections processed using the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) reaction. Using this method, we demonstrated that PAS-positive granules could be used to identify microgamonts and differentiate them from developing meront stages. These findings will aid pathologists and others in properly identifying coccidial parasites, in determining the cause of microscopic lesions in intestinal tissue, and in accurately identifying etiological agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, 20705-2350
| | - D S Lindsay
- 2 Department of Biomedical Science and Pathology, Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Center for One Health Research, Virginia Tech, 1410 Prices Fork Road, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
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Gondim LFP, Soares RM, Osaki SC, Snak A, Grillo LR, Fernandes NLM, de Carvalho AL. Hammondia sp. oocysts shed by a Brazilian fox (Lycalopex vetulus) differ from Hammondia heydorni and Hammondia triffittae. Parasitol Res 2018; 117:2299-2304. [PMID: 29781058 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-018-5920-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A Brazilian fox (Lycalopex vetulus) was rescued from a highway, and 16 days after maintained in captivity, the fox shed oocysts with sizes compatible with Hammondia sp. and Neospora caninum. DNA extracted from oocysts were initially tested in two PCRs targeting the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-1) of the rDNA of Hammondia heydorni and the Nc-5 gene of N. caninum. A 270-bp product was visualized in the PCR for H. heydorni. No amplification was observed for N. caninum PCR. Since ITS-1-based PCR is not sufficient to differentiate Hammondia species derived from canids, oocyst DNA was examined using multilocus sequence analysis of five genetic fragments [intron 1 of the alpha tubulin gene (intron 1), internal transcribed spaces 1 and 2 (ITS-1 and ITS-2) of the rDNA, 28S rRNA gene (D2/D3 domain), and heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70)]. The Hammondia sp. oocyst from the Brazilian fox, referred here as H-FOXBR isolate, is closely related to H. heydorni and Hammondia triffittae, but differs from these parasites in three genetic markers (alpha tubulin gene, ITS-2, and 28S rRNA). As reported by other research groups, Hammondia spp. excreted by canids are genetically diverse and may encompass additional species besides H. heydorni and H. triffittae. In this study, we confirmed that H-FOXBR has significant genetic differences in comparison to H. heydorni and H. triffittae and may represent a separate species. Further studies are needed to identify the life cycle of this parasite and to characterize the parasite stages in the intermediate and definitive hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís F P Gondim
- Departamento de Anatomia, Patologia e Clínicas, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Escola de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Avenida Adhemar de Barros, 500, Ondina, Salvador, Bahia, 40170-110, Brazil.
| | - Rodrigo M Soares
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal (VPS), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia da Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87 - Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP, 05508 270, Brazil
| | - Silvia C Osaki
- Departamento de Ciências Veterinárias, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor Palotina, R. Pioneiros, 2153, Jardim Dallas, Palotina, PR, 85950-000, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Snak
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Tecnologia, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Lages, SC, Brazil
| | - Laura R Grillo
- Departamento de Ciências Veterinárias, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor Palotina, R. Pioneiros, 2153, Jardim Dallas, Palotina, PR, 85950-000, Brazil
| | - Nelson L M Fernandes
- Departamento de Ciências Veterinárias, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor Palotina, R. Pioneiros, 2153, Jardim Dallas, Palotina, PR, 85950-000, Brazil
| | - Anderson L de Carvalho
- Departamento de Ciências Veterinárias, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor Palotina, R. Pioneiros, 2153, Jardim Dallas, Palotina, PR, 85950-000, Brazil
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García-Lunar P, Ortega-Mora LM, Schares G, Diezma-Díaz C, Álvarez-García G. A new lyophilized tachyzoite based ELISA to diagnose Besnoitia spp. infection in bovids and wild ruminants improves specificity. Vet Parasitol 2017; 244:176-182. [PMID: 28917311 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have reported that routinely used whole or soluble Besnoitia besnoiti tachyzoite (TZ) extract-based ELISAs potentially give rise to a high number of false-positive results, which may compromise control and the epidemiological studies of bovine besnoitiosis. Thus, western blot (WB) has been recommended as a confirmatory test. In the present study, a new ELISA test that employs lyophilized tachyzoites for the first time (BbSALUVET ELISA 2.0) was developed and validated with cattle sera (n=606) under a worst-case scenario. False positive and false negative, soluble TZ extract-based BbSALUVET ELISA 1.0 reactors were overrepresented, and WB was used as the reference test. One commercial test (PrioCHECK Besnoitia Ab 2.0, which employs whole TZ extract) and a recently developed membrane-enriched ELISA (APure-BbELISA) were also tested. The three ELISAs showed high AUC values (>0.9). However, the best diagnostic performance corresponded to the BbSALUVET ELISA 2.0 and the APure-BbELISA [(92% sensitivity (Se) and 98% specificity (Sp)] followed by PrioCHECK Besnoitia Ab 2.0 (88% Se, 98% Sp, and 4.5% doubtful results). In addition, the BbSALUVET ELISA 2.0 was validated with wild ruminant sera, and excellent performance (96% Se, 97% Sp, and 4% doubtful results) was obtained again. A different antigenic composition of the lyophilized tachyzoites, compared with whole or soluble tachyzoite extracts, may be responsible for the improved diagnostic performance. This study proposes the use of the BbSALUVET ELISA 2.0 in cattle prior to entry to herds free of the disease and in valuable samples prior to a selective culling without the need of a confirmatory Western Blot test in positive samples due to its excellent specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- P García-Lunar
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - L M Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - G Schares
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald-Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - C Diezma-Díaz
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - G Álvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain.
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Elsheikha HM, Fitzgerald SD, Rosenthal BM, Mansfield LS. Concurrent Presence of Sarcocystis Neurona Sporocysts, Besnoitia Darlingi Tissue Cysts, and Sarcocystis Inghami Sarcocysts in Naturally Infected Opossums (Didelphis Virginiana). J Vet Diagn Invest 2016; 16:352-6. [PMID: 15305752 DOI: 10.1177/104063870401600419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Opossums ( Didelphis virginiana) are exposed to a wide range of coccidia through feeding on a variety of foods, including, but not limited to, carrion, insects, and nestling birds. Abundant D. virginiana populations in urban and suburban areas can be important reservoirs of parasitic infection because of their profuse and prolonged excretion of the sporocysts of several species of Sarcocystis, their omnivorous diet, and their relatively long life span. This report describes 2 adult female opossums found to be simultaneously infected with the tissue cysts of Besnoitia darlingi, sarcocysts of Sarcocystis inghami, as well as with the intestinal sporocysts of S. neurona. Cysts typical of B. darlingi based on gross, histological, and ultrastructural characteristics were disseminated throughout the visceral organs, musculature, ears, and skin. The S. neurona and B. darlingi infections were confirmed by comparative sequence analysis of polymerase chain reaction—amplified diagnostic genetic loci. Sarcocysts of S. inghami are also described. Such examples of multiple parasitic infections show that concurrent infections occur naturally. The propensity for species to coexist should be considered in the differential diagnosis of tissue cyst—forming coccidian protozoa and may have important epidemiological and evolutionary implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- H M Elsheikha
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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Martelli MG, Lee JY. Parasitic Infection of the Gallbladder: Cystoisospora belli Infection as a Cause of Chronic Abdominal Pain and Acalculous Cholecystitis. J Miss State Med Assoc 2016; 57:174-176. [PMID: 27526491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Herein we describe two cases of Cystoisospora belli infection of the gallbladder in patients with chronic abdominal pain and review the published literature to date. C. belli is an intracellular protozoan parasite that typically infects the small bowel of immunocompromised hosts. Little is known of the significance of C. belli infection of the gallbladder at this point as only four cases have been reported as yet, only one of which occurred in an immunocompetent patient. It is often treatable with antibiotics, and the patient's immune status, including HIV testing, should be investigated. Neither of the patients at our institution was found to be immunocompromised, and HIV-1/2 antibody testing was non-reactive in both.
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Townsend JL, Cavuoti D. Photo quiz. A 32-year-old man with HIV and chronic diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 60:786, 821-2. [PMID: 25688141 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciu927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Matsubayashi M, Takayama H, Kusumoto M, Murata M, Uchiyama Y, Kaji M, Sasai K, Yamaguchi R, Shibahara T. First report of molecular identification of Cystoisospora suis in piglets with lethal diarrhea in Japan. Acta Parasitol 2016; 61:406-11. [PMID: 27078667 PMCID: PMC7088846 DOI: 10.1515/ap-2016-0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cystoisospora suis is a pathogen that causes diarrhea in pigs and can lead to serious disease. Species identification, especially by histopathological examination, is often difficult because of morphologically similar parasites such as Eimeria species. In this study, we used histopathological, bacteriological, virological, and parasitological methods to identify the cause of the disease in two piglets with severe diarrhea. Villous atrophy, diffuse necrosis, and flattening of mucosal epithelial cells were found in the ilea of examined piglets, and coccidian parasites were found in the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells. In some merozoites in the meronts, the presence of two nuclei indicated type 1 merozoites, characteristic of C. suis. According to Cystoisospora-specific PCR targeting the rRNA internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) gene, the sequences of the products were 98.5% similar to those of C. suis. Escherichia coli (O149 serogroup) exhibiting a virulence factor profile (LT, STb, and EAST1 as toxins and F4 as a colonization factor) was detected in one piglet. No other bacteria or significant enteric viruses were found. Co-infection with C. suis and E. coli could imply aggravation of the disease, although further study is needed to assess the pathogenicity of this interaction. This study is the first to clarify by molecular analysis the sequences of C. suis detected in piglets in Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Matsubayashi
- National Institute of Animal Health, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856 Japan
- Kumamoto Prefectural Chuo Livestock Hygiene Service Center, Kumamoto, Kumamoto, 861-4215 Japan
| | - Hideko Takayama
- Kumamoto Prefectural Chuo Livestock Hygiene Service Center, Kumamoto, Kumamoto, 861-4215 Japan
| | - Masahiro Kusumoto
- National Institute of Animal Health, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856 Japan
| | - Misato Murata
- Kumamoto Prefectural Chuo Livestock Hygiene Service Center, Kumamoto, Kumamoto, 861-4215 Japan
| | - Yuka Uchiyama
- Kumamoto Prefectural Meat Inspection Office, Kikuchi, Kumamoto, 861-1344 Japan
| | - Masaya Kaji
- Kumamoto Prefectural Johoku Livestock Hygiene Service Center, Yamaga, Kumamoto, 861-0304 Japan
| | - Kazumi Sasai
- Department of Veterinary Science, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Izumisano, Osaka, 598-8531 Japan
| | - Ryosaku Yamaguchi
- National Institute of Animal Health, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856 Japan
- JA Zen-noh (National Federation of Agricultural Co-operative Associations) Institute of Animal Health, Ohja-machi, Sakura, Chiba, 285-0043 Japan
| | - Tomoyuki Shibahara
- National Institute of Animal Health, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856 Japan
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Velásquez JN, di Risio CA, Etchart CB, Chertcoff AV, Nigro MG, Pantano ML, Ledesma BA, Vittar N, Carnevale S. First report of Cystoisospora belli parasitemia in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Acta Parasitol 2016; 61:172-7. [PMID: 26751889 DOI: 10.1515/ap-2016-0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Cystoisospora belli in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) has been described as cause of chronic diarrhea and disseminated cystoisosporosis. Diagnosis of intestinal cystoisosporosis can be achieved at the tissue level in the villus epithelium of the small bowel. Disseminated cystoisosporosis is diagnosed by microscopy identification of unizoite tissue cysts in the lamina propria of the intestine. We report a case of disseminated cystoisosporosis in a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patient with detection of parasitemia. We studied a 39-year old patient with AIDS and chronic diarrhea by analysis of stool and duodenal biopsy samples. Blood samples were also collected and examined by light microscopy and molecular techniques for C. belli DNA detection. The unizoite tissue cyst stages were present in the lamina propria, with unsporulated oocysts in feces. Zoites were present in blood smears and DNA of C. belli was detected in blood samples. Our study identified a new stage in the life cycle of C. belli. Detection of parasitemia is a novel and noninvasive tool for diagnosis of disseminated cystoisosporosis.
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Rassouli M, Ahmadpanahi J, Alvandi A. Prevalence of Sarcocystis spp. and Hammondia spp. microcysts in esophagus tissue of sheep and cattle, emphasized on their morphological differences. Parasitol Res 2014; 113:3801-5. [PMID: 25082016 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-4047-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Sarcocystis and Hammondia are two obligatory protozoan parasites. These genera belong to cyst-forming coccidia group of the phylum Apicomplexa. They both need two different hosts to complete their life cycles. Felids and canids can act as definitive hosts, while herbivores, such as sheep and cattle, are the most important intermediate hosts. Reports verify that no important disease has been caused by Hammondia spp.; on the other hand, Sarcocystis spp. can cause some severe infectious disease in livestock industry such as abortion. Economic losses are another concern due to carcass condemnation during meat inspection in abattoirs and decrease in the quality and quantity of milk and wool production. Due to the Sarcocystis and Hammondia tissue cysts being similar, the distinction between these different genera is so important. In this study, the prevalence of Sarcocystis and Hammondia in the esophagus tissue of sheep and cattle slaughtered in one of the industrial abattoir in Iran was reported and an easy and rapid method for accurate diagnosing of Sarcocystis and Hammondia bradyzoites was explained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Rassouli
- Pathobiology Department of Shahmirzad School of Veterinary Medicine, Semnan University, Vali Asr area, Shahmidzad, Semnan, 35718-95589, Iran,
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward T Ryan
- Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
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Namazi F, Oryan A, Namavari MM, Rahimain A. Experimental infection of embryonated eggs of chicken with Besnoitia caprae. Trop Biomed 2010; 27:417-423. [PMID: 21399581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Knowledge on parasites of the genus Besnoitia, especially Besnoitia caprae, is sparse. Besnoitia caprae, an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa, is the causative agent of caprine besnoitiosis. This experiment was conducted to determine the infectivity of the bradyzoites and the resultant histopathological lesions after inoculation of B. caprae bradyzoites in the embryonated egg. Eight groups, each having six embryonated eggs, were assigned in this experiment. Seven groups were inoculated with different doses of B. caprae bradyzoite inoculums (1x10(3), 1x10(4), 1x10(5), 1x10(6), 5x10(6), 1x10(7) and 2x10(7)) via the allantoic cavity route. The 8th group was considered as control. The embryos inoculated with higher doses showed mortality between 14 and 21 days of incubation (5-12 days post-infection). Those embryos that received lower doses were hatched on day 21 of incubation; however, they presented loss of feathers and paralysis and showed hyperemia in the skin of the feet regions. Histopathological sections of the skin revealed the presence of hemorrhages, hyperemia and inflammatory responses. Some of the chickens were euthanized after 50 days postinfection (DPI) and histopathological examination of their tissues revealed haemorrhages and coagulative necrosis with the presence of mononuclear cells infiltration in the liver and heart with interstitial pneumonia. It seems that the embryonated eggs could be a useful model to study the parasite's biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Namazi
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
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15
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Abstract
The dog is a definitive host of the protozoan parasite Neospora caninum, and in many parts of the world, infection is relatively common as determined by serology. Reported seroprevalences usually range from 0 to 20 per cent, however, reports of clinically affected dogs are infrequent. Affected dogs are generally less than six months old and predominantly have signs of an ascending hindleg paralysis, with the associated lesions of polyradiculoneuritis and granulomatous polymyositis. Although any organ may be affected, infections are more common in the central nervous system, muscles, lungs and skin. Ante-mortem diagnosis is difficult but serology and cytology can aid diagnosis. The diagnosis can be confirmed by histology, immunohistochemistry, the use of molecular techniques on biopsy material, or on post-mortem examination. Neospora caninum oocysts are rarely found in faeces and must be differentiated from oocysts of related coccidians such as Hammondia heydorni and Toxoplasma gondii. Hammondia heydorni can cause diarrrhoea in immunosuppressed dogs. Neosporosis should be suspected in young pups with an ascending paralysis of the hindlegs. Treatment with clindamycin and potentiated sulphonamides may be useful in cases where muscular atrophy and fibrosis are absent. Feeding of raw meat is a potential risk factor for infection of dogs and should be discouraged.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Reichel
- Gribbles Veterinary Parthology, 840 Tremaine Avenue, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Cortes HCE, Reis Y, Gottstein B, Hemphill A, Leitão A, Müller N. Application of conventional and real-time fluorescent ITS1 rDNA PCR for detection of Besnoitia besnoiti infections in bovine skin biopsies. Vet Parasitol 2007; 146:352-6. [PMID: 17418951 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2006] [Revised: 03/02/2007] [Accepted: 03/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia besnoiti, an apicomplexan protozoan parasite, is the causative agent of bovine besnoitiosis. This infection may dramatically affect body condition, and, in males, lead to irreversible infertility. While identification of clinical cases and their histopathological confirmation is relatively simple to carry out, finding subclinical forms of infection is more difficult, thus a more sensitive test for the identification of the etiological agent may be an appropriate diagnostic tool. We have developed the ITS1 rDNA-sequence-based conventional and real-time PCR which are highly sensitive and specific for the detection of B. besnoiti infection in cattle. A recombinant internal positive control was introduced to assess possible sample-related inhibitory effects during the amplification reaction and, in order to prevent false-positive results, a pre-PCR treatment of potentially contaminating dU-containing PCR product with uracil-DNA-glycosylase (UDG) was followed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helder C E Cortes
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Núcleo da Mitra, ICAM, Universidade de Evora, Apartado 94, 7000-554 Evora, Portugal.
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Elsheikha HM. Besnoitia bennetti infection in miniature donkeys: an emerging protozoan of increasing concern. Vet Parasitol 2007; 145:390-1. [PMID: 17317014 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2006] [Accepted: 01/09/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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18
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Elsheikha HM, Mackenzie CD, Rosenthal BM, Marteniuk JV, Steficek B, Windsor S, Saeed AM, Mansfield LS. An outbreak of besnoitiosis in miniature donkeys. J Parasitol 2006; 91:877-81. [PMID: 17089758 DOI: 10.1645/ge-3277.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Fourteen miniature donkeys (Equus asinus) in a mid-Michigan herd of 38 animals presented with clinical signs of besnoitiosis, including the presence of typical tissue cysts in the ocular sclera, the buccal and nasal mucosa, together with characteristic dermatitis in specific areas of the body. The common histopathological change seen was the presence of many 100-200-microm diameter, thick walled, typical Besnoitia sp. tissue cysts together with a chronic cellular response associated with degenerating cysts. Microscopy of isolated scleral cysts and skin biopsies showed the presence of protozoal organisms consistent in morphology with that of Besnoitia bennetti bradyzoites. Molecular analysis of these parasites indicates that they differ from previously described coccidia, including Besnoitia sp., from rabbits and opossums. Isolated cases of infection with this agent have been reported infrequently in equids; however, this is the first report of an outbreak in a herd of donkeys in the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hany M Elsheikha
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
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19
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Cortes HCE, Reis Y, Waap H, Vidal R, Soares H, Marques I, Pereira da Fonseca I, Fazendeiro I, Ferreira ML, Caeiro V, Shkap V, Hemphill A, Leitão A. Isolation of Besnoitia besnoiti from infected cattle in Portugal. Vet Parasitol 2006; 141:226-33. [PMID: 16822614 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2005] [Revised: 04/28/2006] [Accepted: 05/11/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia besnoiti, an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite belonging to the phylum apicomplexa, is the causative agent of bovine besnoitiosis. Besnoitiosis is responsible for significant losses in the cattle industry of Africa and Mediterranean countries due to the high morbidity rate, abortion and infertility in males. The acute stage of disease is associated with the proliferative forms (tachyzoites) and is characterized by fever, whimpery, general weakness and swelling of the superficial lymph nodes. During the following chronic stage, a huge number of cysts are formed mainly in the subcutaneous tissues. This process is non-reversible, and chronic besnoitiosis is characterized by hyper-sclerodermia, hyperkeratosis, alopecia and, in bulls, atrophy, sclerosis and focal necrosis that cause irreversible lesions in the testis. In this paper we report on the identification of large cysts in the skin of a cow and a bull in Portugal, which presented loss of hair and enlargement and pachydermis all over the body. The observation of a two-layered cyst wall within the host cell, the encapsulation of the host cell by a large outer cyst wall, and the subcutaneous localization of the cysts within the host, were characteristic for B. besnoiti. The parasites were isolated from the infected animals and successfully propagated in Vero cells without prior passages in laboratory animals. Morphological characterization of B. besnoiti tachyzoites and the amplification of the 149 bp segment from the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1), aided with specific primers, confirmed the identification of B. besnoiti.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C E Cortes
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, ICAM, Núcleo da Mitra, Universidade de Evora, Ap 94, Evora 7002-554, Portugal.
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20
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Sreekumar C, Vianna MCB, Hill DE, Miska KB, Lindquist A, Dubey JP. Differential detection of Hammondia hammondi from Toxoplasma gondii using polymerase chain reaction. Parasitol Int 2005; 54:267-9. [PMID: 16153883 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2005.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2005] [Revised: 06/15/2005] [Accepted: 06/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Hammondia hammondi and Toxoplasma gondii are two related coccidian parasites, with cats as definitive hosts and warm-blooded animals as intermediate hosts. It is difficult to differentiate them by morphological and serological parameters. In the present study, primers were designed to specifically amplify the ITS-1 region of H. hammondi to differentiate it from T. gondii. Attempts were made to detect the presence of H. hammondi DNA in the tissues of mice infected with H. hammondi alone, as well as from mixed infections with T. gondii, using the newly designed primers. The de novo primers effectively amplified the H. hammondi-specific target fragment from all samples containing H. hammondi, including those with concomitant T. gondii infection. Further, the primers did not amplify any fragment from the related parasites like T. gondii, Neospora caninum and Hammondia heydorni. The new primers provide simple and efficient means to differentially diagnose H. hammondi from T. gondii even in samples containing both parasites, thus obviating the need for other labourious techniques like mouse bioassay and in vitro cultivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sreekumar
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA
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21
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Elsheikha HM, Rosenthal BM, Murphy AJ, Dunams DB, Neelis DA, Mansfield LS. Generally applicable methods to purify intracellular coccidia from cell cultures and to quantify purification efficacy using quantitative PCR. Vet Parasitol 2005; 135:223-34. [PMID: 16280197 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2005] [Revised: 09/08/2005] [Accepted: 09/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the utility of a simple, efficient, and rapid method for the isolation of Sarcocystis neurona merozoites and Besnoitia darlingi tachyzoites from cultured cells. The efficacy of this purification method was assessed by microscopy, SDS-PAGE, Western blotting, immuno-fluorescence, and three novel quantitative PCR assays. Culture medium containing host cell debris and parasites was eluted through PD-10 desalting columns. This purification method was compared to alternatives employing filtration through a cellulose filter pad or filter paper. The estimated recovery of S. neurona merozoites purified by the column method was 82% (+/-3.7) of the original merozoites with 97.5% purity. In contrast, estimated recovery of S. neurona merozoites purified by filter pad and filter paper was 40% and 30% with 76% and 83% purity, respectively. The same procedures were applied to purify B. darlingi tachyzoites from cultured cells. Of the original cultured B. darlingi tachyzoites, 94% (+/-2.5) were recovered from the PD-10 column with 96.5%, purity whereas percentage recovery of B. darlingi tachyzoites purified by filter pad and filter paper were 51% and 35% with 84% and 88% purity, respectively. All described methods maintained sterility so that purified parasites could be subsequently cultured in vitro. However, purification using a PD-10 column minimized parasite loss and the loss of viability as determined by the trypan blue dye exclusion assay, the rate of parasite production, and plaque forming efficiency in cell culture. Moreover, column-purified parasites improved the sensitivity of an immuno-fluorescent (IFA) analysis and real-time quantitative PCR assays targeted to parasite 18S ribosomal DNA and hsp70 genes. This technique appears generally applicable for purifying coccidia grown in cell cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- H M Elsheikha
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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22
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Abel J, Schares G, Orzeszko K, Gasser RB, Ellis JT. Hammondia isolated from dogs and foxes are genetically distinct. Parasitology 2005; 132:187-92. [PMID: 16188045 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182005008814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2005] [Revised: 07/26/2005] [Accepted: 07/27/2005] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Hammondia heydorni is regarded as a protozoan parasite that uses canids, e.g. dogs and foxes, as definitive hosts, but clinical signs of infection are rare. This study therefore took advantage of the opportunity to study an oocyst population from the faeces of a dog suffering from intermittent bouts of diarrhoea. Oocysts from the naturally infected dog were shown to be H. heydorni by using the polymerase chain reaction combined with DNA sequencing as a diagnostic tool. The nucleotide sequence data reported in this paper are available from GenBank under the following Accession numbers DQ183058, DQ183059 and DQ022687. A comparison of the first internal transcribed spacer (ITS1) sequence of ribosomal DNA obtained with those from other dog and fox oocysts, previously regarded as H. heydorni, showed these oocysts contained identical ITS1 sequences. However, the oocyst DNA from the fox and dog differed by the presence/absence of a 9 bp insertion/deletion within intron 1 of the alpha tubulin gene, and this difference was conserved across a number of different oocyst populations from the 2 species of host. A PCR assay was established that takes advantage of this insertion/deletion and is able to differentiate between the 2 oocyst populations. This study therefore provides evidence that H. heydorni oocysts from dogs and foxes represent 2 distinct genetic lineages that can be differentiated using a PCR, which targets the alpha tubulin locus.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Abel
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Technology, Sydney, Westbourne Street, Gore Hill, NSW 2065, Australia
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23
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Dubey JP, Sreekumar C, Donovan T, Rozmanec M, Rosenthal BM, Vianna MCB, Davis WP, Belden JS. Redescription of Besnoitia bennetti (Protozoa: Apicomplexa) from the donkey (Equus asinus). Int J Parasitol 2005; 35:659-72. [PMID: 15862579 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2004] [Revised: 01/17/2005] [Accepted: 01/19/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia bennetti tissue cysts were found in four naturally-infected donkeys (Equus asinus) from the USA. Infectivity of its bradyzoites and tachyzoites to animals and cell culture was studied. The bradyzoites were not infectious to out-bred Swiss Webster mice, rabbits or gerbils. When fed tissue cysts, cats did not excrete oocysts. However, the parasite was infectious to interferon-gamma gene knock out mice. The parasite from tissues of two donkeys was grown successfully in bovine monocyte monolayers for the first time. Non-dividing, uninucleate tachyzoites were approximately 6 x 1.5 microm in size. Longitudinally-cut bradyzoites in tissue sections measured 8.7 x 1.9 microm. Ultrastructurally, tachyzoites and bradyzoites were similar to those in other Besnoitia species, and in particular to parasites described from cattle (Besnoitia besnoiti) and reindeer (Besnoitia tarandi), in that their bradyzoites lacked enigmatic bodies. Based on comparative analysis of three portions of nuclear ribosomal DNA (the small and large subunits and the first internal transcribed spacer) B. bennetti was found to be more closely related to the other congeners described from ungulates. The parasite was formally redescribed and specimens deposited in the US National Parasite Collections.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, MD 20705-2350, USA.
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24
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Elsheikha HM, Rosenthal BM, Mansfield LS. Dexamethasone treatment induces susceptibility of outbred Webster mice to experimental infection with Besnoitia darlingi isolated from opossums (Didelphis virginiana). Parasitol Res 2005; 95:413-9. [PMID: 15759157 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-004-1286-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2004] [Accepted: 11/23/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The Sarcocystidae comprise a diverse, monophyletic apicomplexan parasite family, most of whose members form intracellular cysts in their intermediate hosts. The extent of pathology associated with such cyst formation can range widely. We currently lack experimental animal models for many of these infections. Here we explored dexamethasone treatment as a means to render outbred mice susceptible to Besnoitia darlingi infection and demonstrated that this approach allows viable parasites to be subsequently isolated from these mice and maintained in tissue culture. Besnoitia bradyzoites recovered from crushed cysts derived from naturally infected opossums (Didelphis virginiana) replicated and reproduced the development of besnoitiosis in mice treated with dexamethasone (0.5 mg/ml drinking water) daily for 12 days post infection (DPI). Isolates recovered from the peritoneal exudates of these mice were viable and were maintained in long-term tissue cultures. In contrast, control mice given saline without dexamethasone and challenged with similar bradyzoites remained clinically normal for up to 70 DPI. An additional group of mice challenged with the same inoculum of bradyzoites and given dexamethasone at the same concentration and treated with sulfadiazine (1 mg/ml drinking water) daily for 12 DPI also remained normal for up to 70 DPI. Severe disease developed more rapidly in dexamethasone-treated mice inoculated with culture-derived B. darlingi tachyzoites than in those inoculated with cyst-derived bradyzoites. B. darlingi tachyzoite-infected, untreated control mice developed signs of illness at 18 DPI. In contrast, mice treated with sulfadiazine showed no clinical signs up to 50 DPI. Although dexamethasone treatment was required to establish B. darlingi infection in outbred mice inoculated with opossum-derived B. darlingi bradyzoites, no such treatment was required for mice inoculated with culture-derived B. darlingi tachyzoites. Finally, sulfadiazine was highly effective in protecting mice from infection with the tachyzoite stage of B. darlingi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hany M Elsheikha
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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25
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Gondim LFP, McAllister MM, Mateus-Pinilla NE, Pitt WC, Mech LD, Nelson ME. Transmission of Neospora caninum between wild and domestic animals. J Parasitol 2005; 90:1361-5. [PMID: 15715229 DOI: 10.1645/ge-341r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine whether deer can transmit Neospora caninum, brains of naturally infected white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were fed to 4 dogs; 2 of these dogs shed oocysts. Oocysts from 1 of the dogs were tested by polymerase chain reaction and found to be positive for N. caninum and negative for Hammondia heydorni. The internal transcribed spacer 1 sequence of the new strain (designated NC-deer1) was identical to N. caninum from domestic animals, indicating that N. caninum is transmitted between wild and domestic animals, often enough to prevent divergent evolution of isolated populations of the parasite. NC-deerl oocysts were administered to a calf that developed a high antibody titer, providing evidence that N. caninum from wildlife can infect cattle. In addition, N. caninum antibody seroprevalence was detected in 64/164 (39%) free-ranging gray wolves (Canis lupus), 12/113 (11%) coyotes (Canis latrans), 50/193 (26%) white-tailed deer, and 8/61 (13%) moose (Alces alces). These data are consistent with a sylvatic transmission cycle of N. caninum between cervids and canids. We speculate that hunting by humans favors the transmission of N. caninum from deer to canids, because deer carcasses are usually eviscerated in the field. Infection of canids in turn increases the risk of transmitting the parasite to domestic livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- L F P Gondim
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, 2001 South Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61802, USA
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26
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Dubey JP, Sreekumar C, Rosenthal BM, Vianna MCB, Nylund M, Nikander S, Oksanen A. Redescription of Besnoitia tarandi (Protozoa: Apicomplexa) from the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). Int J Parasitol 2004; 34:1273-87. [PMID: 15491590 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2004.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2004] [Revised: 07/05/2004] [Accepted: 07/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia tarandi tissue cysts were found in naturally-infected reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) from Finland. Infectivity of its tissue cysts, bradyzoites, and tachyzoites to animals and cell culture was studied. The bradyzoites and tissue cysts were not infectious to out-bred mice, rabbits or gerbils. When fed tissue cysts, neither cats nor dogs excreted oocysts. However, the parasite was lethal to interferon-gamma gene knock out mice irrespective of the route of inoculation. The parasite was grown successfully in African Green Monkey cells from tissues of two reindeer for the first time. Non-dividing, uninucleate tachyzoites from smears from cell cultures were 5.6 x 1.4 microm (4.5-7.4 x 1.0-1.9, n=50) in size. Longitudinally-cut bradyzoites in tissue sections measured 7.4 x 1.3 microm (6.5-7.8 x 1.0-1.6, n=30). Ultrastructurally, tachyzoites and bradyzoites were similar to those in other Besnoitia species, and in particular to parasites described from cattle (Besnoitia besnoiti) and equids (Besnoitia bennetti) in that their bradyzoites lacked enigmatic bodies. Based on comparative analysis of three portions of nuclear ribosomal DNA (the small and large subunits and the first internal transcribed spacer) B. tarandi was found to be more closely related to the other congeners described from ungulates. The parasite was formally redescribed and specimens deposited in the US National Parasite Collection.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
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27
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Dubey JP, Sreekumar C, Miska KB, Hill DE, Vianna MCB, Lindsay DS. Molecular and Biological Characterization of Hammondia heydorni–Like Oocysts From a Dog Fed Hearts From Naturally Infected White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus). J Parasitol 2004; 90:1174-6. [PMID: 15562623 DOI: 10.1645/ge-324r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Neospora caninum and Hammondia heydorni are morphologically and phylogenetically related coccidians that are found in dogs. Although there is serological evidence of N. caninum infection in the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), the parasite has not been yet isolated from the tissues of this host. In an attempt to isolate N. caninum from deer, hearts from 4 deer with antibodies to N. caninum were fed to 2 dogs. One of these dogs shed unsporulated oocysts 12-14 microm in diameter. Sporulated oocysts were not infective to Mongolian gerbils (Meriones ungulatus), and DNA isolated from these oocysts was not amplified using N. caninum-specific primers. However, positive amplification with the H. heydorni-specific first internal transcribed spacer (ITS-1) primers and common toxoplasmatiid ITS-1 primers confirmed the presence of H. heydorni DNA in the samples. The oocysts were considered to be H. heydorni on the basis of their morphology, biology, and molecular characteristics. This is the first record of a H. heydorni-like parasite in the white-tailed deer.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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Sreekumar C, Hill DE, Fournet VM, Rosenthal BM, Lindsay DS, Dubey JP. Detection of Hammondia heydorni-like organisms and their differentiation from Neospora caninum using random-amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction. J Parasitol 2003; 89:1082-5. [PMID: 14627168 DOI: 10.1645/ge-93r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Neospora caninum and Hammondia heydorni are morphologically and phylogenetically related coccidians that are found in dogs. New diagnostic genetic loci, based on random-amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR), were developed to aid in the detection of H. heydorni-like parasites and to discriminate them from N. caninum and other related coccidians of dogs. On the basis of the data obtained from 5 random decamers, H. heydorni (Manhattan-1) and N. caninum (NC1) were characterized by distinct banding patterns (similarity index = 0.068). High-stringency PCR assays were developed from the sequences of 2 cloned bands (GenBank BZ592549 and BZ592593), uniquely amplified from H. heydorni. Interestingly, using these primers, PCR amplification was achieved only from 2 of the 5 isolates presumed to represent H. heydorni. The same result was obtained from these 5 isolates using a recently described PCR assay directed to the H. heydorni internal transcribed spacer-1. It is concluded that H. heydorni and N. caninum are genetically distinct and that such tools may be useful for more detailed characterization of the diversity of related parasites occurring in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sreekumar
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705 , USA.
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Dubey JP, Ross AD, Fritz D. Clinical Toxoplasma gondii, Hammondia heydorni, and Sarcocystis spp. infections in dogs. Parassitologia 2003; 45:141-6. [PMID: 15267102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
Concurrent infections with coccidians Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis spp., and a Hammondia heydorni-like parasite were identified in tissues of three littermate pups on a Kelpie dog breeding farm in Australia. In total, 20 pups in four litters had died following vaccination with an attenuated distemper virus vaccine. Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites were identified immunohistochemically in tissues of two dogs. Sarcocystis sp. sporocysts were seen in the intestinal lamina propria of two dogs. Asexual and sexual stages of H. heydorni-like parasite were found in enterocytes of the small intestine of two dogs. Ultrastructural development of schizonts and gamonts of this parasite is described. None of the protozoa in these dogs reacted with antibodies to Neospora caninum. Feeding of uncooked tissue of sheep was considered to be the likely source of infection for these coccidians in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
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Abstract
This is the first report of blue autofluorescence as a useful characteristic in the microscopic detection of Toxoplasma gondii, Hammondia hammondi, Hammondia heydorni, Neospora caninum, Besnoitia darlingi, and Sarcocystis neurona oocysts or sporocysts. This autofluorescence is of sufficient intensity and duration to allow identification of these oocysts from complex microscopic sample backgrounds. As with the autofluorescence of related coccidia, the oocysts glow pale blue when illuminated with an ultraviolet (UV) light source and viewed with the correct UV excitation and emission filter set.
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Affiliation(s)
- H D Alan Lindquist
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. M.L. King Dr., Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, USA.
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Dubey JP, Sreekumar C, Rosenthal BM, Lindsay DS, Grisard EC, Vitor RWA. Biological and molecular characterization of Besnoitia akodoni n.sp. (Protozoa: Apicomplexa) from the rodent Akodon montensis in Brazil. Parassitologia 2003; 45:61-70. [PMID: 15266998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
The diversity among coccidian parasites of the genus Besnoitia is incompletely known. Of the eight currently described members of the genus, only B. jellisoni is known to parasitize a rodent host. Here, we propose a new name, Besnoitia akodoni, for the species initially isolated form the rodent Akodon montensis in Brazil. The tissue cysts of B. akodoni were up to 442 microm in diameter and bradyzoites were 8.4 x 1.4 microm in size. The bradyzoites contained enigmatic bodies, micronemes and rhoptries. Tachyzoites were 5.8 x 1.5 microm in size and they could be grown in vitro in bovine monocytes and African Green monkey cells where they divided by endodyogeny. Besnoitia akodoni was infective to laboratory-raised mice (Mus musculus) and gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) but not to cats (Felis catus). Comparison of the conserved sequences of the small subunit rDNA clearly established the close relationship of B. akodoni with other members of the genus. However, sequences of the more variable first internal transcribed spacer portion of the ribosomal DNA repeat support its differentiation from the other species of the genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- United United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
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Abstract
Unsporulated oocysts were detected in the feces of an Arabian red fox (Vulpes vulpes arabica) between 6 and 8 days after it had been fed meat from Arabian mountain gazelles (Gazella gazella) known to contain sarcocysts. No oocysts were discovered in the feces of other experimental cubs, although sporocysts of Sarcocystis spp. were passed subsequently by all cubs that were fed gazelle meat, including those fed with reem (G. subgutturosa marica). The oocysts sporulated in 3 days at room temperature (25 +/- 2 C); they were 10.9 +/- 1.4 x 10.1 +/- 1.3 microm, with 2 sporocysts measuring 6.0 +/- 0.6 x 4.7 +/- 0.8 microm, each with 4 sporozoites. Sporulated oocysts were identified as those of Hammondia heydorni using molecular and standard morphometric techniques. Sequence differences between 2 fox and 3 dog isolates of H. heydorni were detected and allowed differentiation between the 2 populations of the organism. The involvement of Neospora caninum was excluded using molecular methods. The Arabian red fox and the Arabian mountain gazelle in Saudi Arabia are new, definitive and intermediate hosts for H. heydorni.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osama B Mohammed
- King Khalid Wildlife Research Center, Thumamah, National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development, P.O. Box 61681, Riyadh 11575, Saudi Arabia
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Venturini L, Petruccelli M, Píscopo M, Unzaga JM, Venturini MC, Bacigalupe D, Basso W, Dubey JP. Natural Besnoitia sp. infection in domestic rabbits from Argentina. Vet Parasitol 2002; 107:273-8. [PMID: 12163238 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4017(02)00156-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia sp. are apicomplexan coccidian parasites affecting several species of mammals and cold-blooded animals in several countries. Besnoitia sp. tissue cysts were seen in several tissues of five rabbits from a rabbit breeder in La Plata, Argentina. Bradyzoites released from macroscopic tissue cysts were inoculated onto bovine monocytes, and into interferon gamma gene knockout (KO) mice. Besnoitia sp. tachyzoites were seen in the peritoneal exudate of KO mice on day 10 pi and these tachyzoites were infective to other KO mice. Tachyzoites grown in cell culture were infective to gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). This is the first report of Besnoitia sp. infection in any host in Argentina.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Venturini
- Parasitología y E. Parasitarias, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 60 y 118, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
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Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Rosenthal BM, Sreekumar C, Hill DE, Shen SK, Kwok OCH, Rickard LG, Black SS, Rashmir-Raven A. Establishment of Besnoitia darlingi from opossums (Didelphis virginiana) in experimental intermediate and definitive hosts, propagation in cell culture, and description of ultrastructural and genetic characteristics. Int J Parasitol 2002; 32:1053-64. [PMID: 12076634 DOI: 10.1016/s0020-7519(02)00060-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia darlingi from naturally infected opossums (Didelphis virginiana) from Mississippi, USA, was propagated experimentally in mice, cats, and cell culture and was characterised according to ultrastructural, genetic, and life-history characteristics. Cats fed tissue cysts from opossums shed oocysts with a prepatent period of nine or 11 days. Oocysts, bradyzoites, or tachyzoites were infective to outbred and interferon-gamma gene knockout mice. Tachyzoites were successfully cultivated and maintained in vitro in bovine monocytes and African green monkey cells and revived after an 18-month storage in liquid nitrogen. Schizonts were seen in the small intestinal lamina propria of cats fed experimentally-infected mouse tissues. These schizonts measured up to 45 x 25 microm and contained many merozoites. A few schizonts were present in mesenteric lymph nodes and livers of cats fed tissue cysts. Ultrastructurally, tachyzoites and bradyzoites of B. darlingi were similar to other species of Besnoitia. A close relationship to B. besnoiti and an even closer relationship to B. jellisoni was indicated for B. darlingi on the basis of the small subunit and ITS-1 portions of nuclear ribosomal DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- Parasite Biology Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, United States Department of Agriculture, Building 1001, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
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Gupta GD, Lakritz J, Kim JH, Kim DY, Kim JK, Marsh AE. Seroprevalence of Neospora, Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis neurona antibodies in horses from Jeju island, South Korea. Vet Parasitol 2002; 106:193-201. [PMID: 12062508 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4017(02)00064-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Parasite-specific antibody responses to Neospora spp. and Toxoplasma gondii, antigens were detected using the indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and immunoblot analysis in a korean equine population located on Jeju island, South Korea (126 degrees 12' E and 33 degrees 34' N). For comparison, a naturally infected Neospora hughesi horse and an experimentally inoculated T. gondii equid (pony) were used. In addition, all samples were tested for antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona by immunoblot analysis. A total of 191 serum samples from clinically normal horses were evaluated. Only 2% (4 out of 191) and 2.6% (5 out of 191) of the samples had showed reactivity at 1:100 using the IFAT for Neospora spp. and T. gondii, respectively. For T. gondii, two samples matched the antigen banding pattern of the positive control by immunoblot analysis. No sample was positive for N. hughesi by immunoblot analysis in this study. Overall, there was a 1% seroprevalence for T. gondii antibodies in the horses tested based on immunoblot analysis. The seroprevalence for S. neurona and N. hughesi antibodies was 0%. We concluded that these horses are either not routinely exposed to these parasites or antibody titers are not sufficiently elevated to be detectable. It is most likely the former explanation since Jeju island equine farms are isolated from the main land, and the horses were all less than 3 years of age. This naïve population of horses could be useful when evaluating S. neurona serodiagnostic tests or evaluating potential S. neurona vaccines since exposure risks to S. neurona and closely related parasites are negligible.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Gupta
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Connaway Hall, 1600 East Rollins Dr., Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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Abstract
An evaluation of both the formal requirements of the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature and the scientific reasons for the description of new genera and species shows that the name Neospora caninum is a nomen nudum. The only characteristic criteria for discriminating between the previously described species Hammondia heydorni and the proposed new species N. caninum (i.e. the lack of a parasitophorous vacuole) has been shown to be wrong in many publications. Furthermore, absolutely no criteria were presented as to why a new genus (i.e. Neospora) should be established besides the already existing genera Hammondia, Toxoplasma and Isospora. In addition, recent transmission experiments show that an oocyst isolate (from the faeces of dogs) is morphologically indistinguishable from H. heydorni [synonymous with Isospora bigemina - small form, Isospora heydorni (Tadros and Laarman 1976) and H. heydorni (Tadros and Laarman 1976) Dubey 1977] and is almost identical with respect to molecular biological features with the NC-1 strain of N. caninum.
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Schares G, Heydorn AO, Cüppers A, Conraths FJ, Mehlhorn H. Hammondia heydorni-like oocysts shed by a naturally infected dog and Neospora caninum NC-1 cannot be distinguished. Parasitol Res 2001; 87:808-16. [PMID: 11688886 DOI: 10.1007/s004360100445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
This study describes transmission experiments using Hammondia heydorni-like oocysts isolated in 1996 from a naturally infected dog. The isolate was designated as H. heydorni-Berlin-1996. Examination of sera from infected intermediate hosts showed immunoblot reactions that resembled patterns observed after Neospora caninum NC-1 infection. Furthermore, N. caninum DNA could be demonstrated in tissue samples (e.g. heart, brain) of experimentally infected intermediate hosts and in oocyst preparations from H. heydorni-Berlin-1996. The isolated oocysts did not induce any detectable disease in any of the inoculated adult intermediate hosts (goats, sheep, gerbils, guinea pigs, multimammate rats, BALB/c mice, SCID mice), even upon immunosuppression. Furthermore, neither histological lesions nor parasite stages could be identified in the tissues of all fetuses recovered from two multimammate rats that had been infected prior to pregnancy. An experiment with one dog fed a second time on infected intermediate host tissue indicated that immunity may prevent repeated oocyst shedding in N. caninum-infected dogs. In addition, the study clearly demonstrates that N. caninum can be readily transmitted by dogs that have ingested exclusively skeletal muscles of infected intermediate hosts. Therefore, the study has consequences for the recommendations for farmers to prevent postnatal transmission of N. caninum to cattle. It indicates that feeding of any tissues of potential intermediate hosts (including sheep, goats, rodents) to final hosts may induce the shedding of oocysts in these hosts and thus pose a risk for post-natal infection of cattle. With respect to oocyst morphology and the infectivity of muscle tissues for final hosts, no differences were seen in comparison with observations made in the past on Isospora bigemina/I. heydorni/H. heydorni. Therefore, earlier studies made on I. bigemina/I. heydorni/H. heydorni have to be re-evaluated critically to determine whether they may have included N. caninum or other protozoan parasites that use dogs as final hosts and have an oocyst morphology resembling that of I. bigemina/I. heydorni/H. heydorni.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Schares
- Institute for Epidemiological Diagnostics, Federal Research Centre for Virus Diseases of Animals, Wusterhausen, Germany.
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Abstract
Five murine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were developed against purified sporozoites of Hammondia hammondi. Despite a large antigenic similarity between the 2 closely related coccidia, H. hammondi and Toxoplasma gondii, these MAbs only reacted with H. hammondi. Three MAbs, ID3, 3F2, and 4C9-7, recognized antigens of 38 kDa localized in rhoptries (1D3), in rhoptries and in oocyst and cyst walls (3F2), and in rhoptries and the apical region (4C9-7). Another MAb, 4C9-10, reacted with a 27-kDa antigen in dense granules of sporozoites and tachyzoites, and MAB 11B3 labeled an antigen of >94 kDa located in the pellicular membrane of the 3 stages of the parasite. These MAbs could be used for a rapid discrimination of the 2 coccidia in epidemiological studies or for diagnostic purposes in tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Riahi
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, CHU Dupuyten, Limoges, France
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Abstract
A Frenkelia microti tissue cyst was found in the brain of a chinchilla (Chinchilla laniger) used for biomedical research. This is the first report of Frenkelia infection in this animal in the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- Livestock and Poultry Sciences Institute, United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculural Research Service, Beltsville, Maryland 20705-2350, USA
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