1
|
Karnezis T, Shayan R, Caesar C, Roufail S, Harris NC, Ardipradja K, Zhang YF, Williams SP, Farnsworth RH, Chai MG, Rupasinghe TWT, Tull DL, Baldwin ME, Sloan EK, Fox SB, Achen MG, Stacker SA. VEGF-D promotes tumor metastasis by regulating prostaglandins produced by the collecting lymphatic endothelium. Cancer Cell 2012; 21:181-95. [PMID: 22340592 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2011.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Revised: 10/10/2011] [Accepted: 12/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Lymphatic metastasis is facilitated by lymphangiogenic growth factors VEGF-C and VEGF-D that are secreted by some primary tumors. We identified regulation of PGDH, the key enzyme in prostaglandin catabolism, in endothelial cells of collecting lymphatics, as a key molecular change during VEGF-D-driven tumor spread. The VEGF-D-dependent regulation of the prostaglandin pathway was supported by the finding that collecting lymphatic vessel dilation and subsequent metastasis were affected by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), known inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis. Our data suggest a control point for cancer metastasis within the collecting lymphatic endothelium, which links VEGF-D/VEGFR-2/VEGFR-3 and the prostaglandin pathways. Collecting lymphatics therefore play an active and important role in metastasis and may provide a therapeutic target to restrict tumor spread.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tara Karnezis
- Tumour Angiogenesis Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Deguchi K, Ichikawa D, Soga K, Watanabe K, Kosuga T, Takeshita H, Konishi H, Morimura R, Tsujiura M, Komatsu S, Shiozaki A, Okamoto K, Fujiwara H, Otsuji E. Clinical significance of vascular endothelial growth factors C and D and chemokine receptor CCR7 in gastric cancer. Anticancer Res 2010; 30:2361-2366. [PMID: 20651394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIM This study was designed to investigate the clinical significance of lymphangiogenic vascular endothelial growth factors C and D, and chemokine receptor CCR7 in the lymphatic spread of gastric cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS The expressions of VEGF-C and -D, and CCR7 were examined in 82 gastric tumors showing a discrepancy between the degree of lymphatic invasion (Ly) and the status of lymph node metastasis (N) (Ly+N-: 72, and Ly-N+: 10 patients). RESULTS High expression of VEGF-C and -D, and CCR7 was present in 88%, 63% and 67% of cases, respectively. The VEGF-C expression was significantly higher in Ly+N- than Ly-N+ (p<0.05), but VEGF-D and CCR7 were not. CCR7 expression was a prognostic factor in the Ly+N- subgroup (p<0.05), but VEGF-C and -D were not. CONCLUSION VEGF-C and -D and CCR7 may play critical roles in lymphatic invasion in primary tumors. CCR7 expression should provide prognostic information in node-negative gastric cancer patients showing lymphatic invasion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katsuya Deguchi
- Division of Digestive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 6028566, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wen J, Fu AF, Chen LJ, Xie XJ, Yang GL, Chen XC, Wang YS, Li J, Chen P, Tang MH, Shao XM, Lu Y, Zhao X, Wei YQ. Liposomal honokiol inhibits VEGF-D-induced lymphangiogenesis and metastasis in xenograft tumor model. Int J Cancer 2009; 124:2709-18. [PMID: 19219913 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Lymph nodes metastasis of tumor could be a crucial early step in the metastatic process. Induction of tumor lymphangiogenesis by vascular endothelial growth factor-D may play an important role in promoting tumor metastasis to regional lymph nodes and these processes can be inhibited by inactivation of the VEGFR-3 signaling pathway. Honokiol has been reported to possess potent antiangiogenesis and antitumor properties in several cell lines and xenograft tumor models. However, its role in tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis remains unclear. Here, we established lymph node metastasis models by injecting overexpressing VEGF-D Lewis lung carcinoma cells into C57BL/6 mice to explore the effect of honokiol on tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis and related lymph node metastasis. The underlying mechanisms were systematically investigated in vitro and in vivo. In in vivo study, liposomal honokiol significantly inhibited the tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis and metastasis in Lewis lung carcinoma model. A remarkable delay of tumor growth and prolonged life span were also observed. In in vitro study, honokiol inhibited VEGF-D-induced survival, proliferation and tube-formation of both human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and lymphatic vascular endothelial cells (HLECs). Western blotting analysis showed that liposomal honokiol-inhibited Akt and MAPK phosphorylation in 2 endothelial cells, and downregulated expressions of VEGFR-2 of human vascular endothelial cells and VEGFR-3 of lymphatic endothelial cells. Thus, we identified for the first time that honokiol provided therapeutic benefit not only by direct effects on tumor cells and antiangiogenesis but also by inhibiting lymphangiogenesis and metastasis via the VEGFR-3 pathway. The present findings may be of importance to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the spread of cancer via the lymphatics and explore the therapeutical strategy of honokiol on antilymphangiogenesis and antimetastasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Teramoto S, Arihiro K, Koseki M, Kataoka T, Asahara T, Ohdan H. Role of vascular endothelial growth factor-C and -D mRNA in breast cancer. Hiroshima J Med Sci 2008; 57:73-78. [PMID: 18717190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C and VEGF-D belong to the VEGF family, and are thought to be involved in lymphangiogenesis and angiogenesis. At present, this is the only known system that can induce lymphatic vessel growth in the body. However, the roles of VEGF-C and VEGF-D in breast cancer tissue have not been clarified. In the present study, we measured the mRNA expression of VEGF-C and VEGF-D in the breast cancer tissue of 109 patients by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Between non-infiltrating breast cancer (n=6) and infiltrating breast cancer (n=103), there were no significant differences in the mRNA expression of VEGF-C and VEGF-D. In infiltrating cancer, the expression of HER2 exhibited a positive correlation to VEGF-C and VEGF-D mRNA expression (p=0.027, p=0.048). However, mRNA expression ofVEGF-C and VEGF-D did not exhibit any significant correlation to lymphatic vessel invasion or lymph node metastasis. Among patients without lymph node metastasis, the mRNA expression of VEGF-C and VEGF-D for patients with lymphatic vessel invasion was significantly higher than that for patients without lymphatic vessel invasion (p=0.001, p=0.050). The results suggest that, in breast cancer, VEGF-C and VEGF-D are involved in lymphatic vessel invasion prior to lymph node metastasis, and their expression decreases after lymph node metastasis occurs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seiichi Teramoto
- Department of Surgery, Division of Frontier Medical Science, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, Minami-ku, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Shayan R, Karnezis T, Tsantikos E, Williams SP, Runting AS, Ashton MW, Achen MG, Hibbs ML, Stacker SA. A system for quantifying the patterning of the lymphatic vasculature. Growth Factors 2007; 25:417-25. [PMID: 18365872 DOI: 10.1080/08977190801932550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The lymphatic vasculature is critical for immunity and interstitial fluid homeostasis, playing important roles in diseases such as lymphedema and metastatic cancer. Animal models have been generated to explore the role of lymphatics and lymphangiogenic growth factors in such diseases, and to study lymphatic development. However, analysis of lymphatic vessels has primary been restricted to counting lymphatics in two-dimensional tissue slices, due to a lack of more sophisticated methodologies. In order to accurately examine lymphatic dysfunction in these models, and analyse the effects of lymphangiogenic growth factors on the lymphatic vasculature, it is essential to quantify the morphology and patterning of the distinct lymphatic vessels types in three-dimensional tissues. Here, we describe a method for performing such analyses, integrating user-operated image-analysis software with an approach that considers important morphological, anatomical and patterning features of the distinct lymphatic vessel subtypes. This efficient, reproducible technique is validated by analysing healthy and pathological tissues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ramin Shayan
- Melbourne Tumor Biology Branch, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Vittet D, Feige JJ. [Lymphangiogenesis and tumor progression]. Bull Cancer 2007; 94:881-886. [PMID: 17964982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2007] [Accepted: 07/30/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Numerous data show a functional link between lymphangiogenesis, lymph node invasion by tumoral cells and metastasis. During the last decade, the identification of lymphatic endothelial cell-specific markers has allowed the investigation of lymphangiogenesis regulatory mechanisms and the analysis of its involvement in tumoral progression. Among regulatory systems, the growth factors VEGF-C and D, that bind and activate their common receptor VEGFR3, appear to play an important role in this process. Therapeutic strategies targeting this pathway or, in a general manner, aiming at inhibiting tumoral lymphangiogenesis are now considered to block the development of tumoral metastasis. Further fundamental and clinical studies are clearly needed to establish the pronostic value of lymphangiogenesis and to validate anti-lymphangiogenic therapies in the treatment of metastatic cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Vittet
- Inserm U878, iRTSV/LAPV, CEA Grenoble, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38054 Grenoble Cedex 9.
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kopfstein L, Veikkola T, Djonov VG, Baeriswyl V, Schomber T, Strittmatter K, Stacker SA, Achen MG, Alitalo K, Christofori G. Distinct roles of vascular endothelial growth factor-D in lymphangiogenesis and metastasis. Am J Pathol 2007; 170:1348-61. [PMID: 17392173 PMCID: PMC1829467 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.060835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In many human carcinomas, expression of the lymphangiogenic factor vascular endothelial growth factor-D (VEGF-D) correlates with up-regulated lymphangiogenesis and regional lymph node metastasis. Here, we have used the Rip1Tag2 transgenic mouse model of pancreatic beta-cell carcinogenesis to investigate the functional role of VEGF-D in the induction of lymphangiogenesis and tumor progression. Expression of VEGF-D in beta cells of single-transgenic Rip1VEGF-D mice resulted in the formation of peri-insular lymphatic lacunae, often containing leukocyte accumulations and blood hemorrhages. When these mice were crossed to Rip1Tag2 mice, VEGF-D-expressing tumors also exhibited peritumoral lymphangiogenesis with lymphocyte accumulations and hemorrhages, and they frequently developed lymph node and lung metastases. Notably, tumor outgrowth and blood microvessel density were significantly reduced in VEGF-D-expressing tumors. Our results demonstrate that VEGF-D induces lymphangiogenesis, promotes metastasis to lymph nodes and lungs, and yet represses hemangiogenesis and tumor outgrowth. Because a comparable transgenic expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) in Rip1Tag2 has been shown previously to provoke lymphangiogenesis and lymph node metastasis in the absence of any distant metastasis, leukocyte infiltration, or angiogenesis-suppressing effects, these results reveal further functional differences between VEGF-D and VEGF-C.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Kopfstein
- Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics, Department of Clinical-Biological Sciences, University of Basel, Center of Biomedicine, Mattenstrasse 28, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) is the most frequently occurring human thyroid cancer with good prognosis following appropriate treatment. Lymph node (LN) metastases are the main way through which PTC spread cancer cells. The mechanisms underlying PTC with local invasion, LN metastases and distant metastases are not well investigated. Tumor secrete cytokines, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C and -D bind to VEGF receptors on lymphatic endothelial cells and induce proliferation (budding) from nearby lymphatic capillaries and growth of new lymphatic capillaries. About one-third of patients can be diagnosed at the time of surgical findings. Different image studies, such as ultrasonography with fine needle aspiration cytology, scintigraphic localization and positron emission tomography were reported to detect LN metastases. Important factors in predicting LN metastases are vascular invasion, male gender, absence of tumor capsule, and perithyroid involvement. Tumor recurrence in LN after primary treatment of PTC had an independent and highly significant negative effect on survival in patients over 45 year-old. Recombinant adeno-associated virus-mediated gene transfer of sVEGFR3-Fc is a feasible therapeutic scheme for blocking lymphogenous metastasis. In conclusion, aggressive surgical procedures performed by experienced surgeons or postoperative radioactive iodine therapy to minimize local recurrence of LN for PTC patients with high risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jen-Der Lin
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University, Taiwan, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Lee J, Hwan Kim K, Kim H. Role of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-D (VEGF-D) on IL-6 Expression in Cerulein-Stimulated Pancreatic Acinar Cells. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007; 1095:129-33. [PMID: 17404025 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1397.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Cerulein pancreatitis is similar to human edematous pancreatitis with dysregulation of the digestive enzyme production and cytoplasmic vacuolization, the death of acinar cells, edema formation, and an infiltration of inflammatory cells into the pancreas. Our preliminary proteomic analysis showed increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-D (VEGF-D) in cerulein (10(-8)M)-treated pancreatic acinar cells. We hypothesized that VEGF-D may have a role in cerulein-induced cytokine expression in pancreatic acinar cells. This article was designed to elucidate whether cerulein induces VEGF-D expression in pancreatic AR42J cells, and whether VEGF-D expression is related to interleukin-6 (IL-6) expression by transfecting antisense oligonucleotide (AS ODN) for VEGF-D into pancreatic acinar AR42J cells. Cerulein-induced AP-1 activation was monitored in the cells transfected with AS ODN or sense ODN (S ODN) for VEGF-D. mRNA expression of IL-6 was determined by RT-PCR analysis. AP-1 activation was assessed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). VEGF-D expression was assessed by Western blotting. Cerulein induced IL-6 expression and VEGF-D expression in AR42J cells. Cerulein-induced AP-1 activation and IL-6 expression was inhibited in the cells transfected with AS ODN for VEGF-D as compared to S ODN. Cerulein-induced VEGF-D expression may have a role in AP-1 activation and IL-6 expression in pancreatic acinar cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jangwon Lee
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Yonsei University College of Human Ecology, Seoul 120-749, Korea
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
The cutaneous lymphatic system plays an important role in the maintenance of tissue fluid homeostasis, in the afferent phase of the immune response, and in the metastatic spread of skin cancers. However, the lymphatic system has not received as much scientific attention as the blood vascular system, largely due to a lack of lymphatic-specific markers and to the dearth of knowledge about the molecular regulation of its development and function. The recent identification of genes that specifically control lymphatic development and the growth of lymphatic vessels (lymphangiogenesis), together with the discovery of new lymphatic endothelium-specific markers, have now provided new insights into the molecular mechanisms that control lymphatic growth and function. Moreover, studies of several genetic mouse models have set the framework for a new molecular model for embryonic lymphatic vascular development, and have identified molecular pathways whose mutational inactivation leads to human diseases associated with lymphedema. These scientific advances have also provided surprising evidence that malignant tumors can directly promote lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis, and that lymphatic vessels play a major role in cutaneous inflammation and in the cutaneous response to UVB irradiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leah N Cueni
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
Recent studies involving animal models of cancer and clinicopathological analyses of human tumours suggest that the growth of lymphatic vessels (lymphangiogenesis) in or nearby tumours is associated with the metastatic spread of cancer. The best validated molecular signalling system for tumour lymphangiogenesis involves the secreted proteins vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and VEGF-D that induce growth of lymphatic vessels via activation of VEGF receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) localised on the surface of lymphatic endothelial cells. In this review, we discuss the evidence supporting a role for this signalling system in the spread of cancer and potential approaches for blocking this system to prevent tumour metastasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M G Achen
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Post Office Box 2008 Royal Melbourne Hospital, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Post Office Box 2008 Royal Melbourne Hospital. E-mails:
| | - G B Mann
- Department of Surgery, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3050, Victoria, Australia
| | - S A Stacker
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Post Office Box 2008 Royal Melbourne Hospital, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Post Office Box 2008 Royal Melbourne Hospital. E-mails:
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Foster RR, Satchell SC, Seckley J, Emmett MS, Joory K, Xing CY, Saleem MA, Mathieson PW, Bates DO, Harper SJ. VEGF-C promotes survival in podocytes. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2006; 291:F196-207. [PMID: 16525158 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00431.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A is an autocrine survival factor for podocytes, which express two VEGF receptors, VEGF-R1 and VEGF-R3. As VEGF-A is not a known ligand for VEGF-R3, the aim of this investigation was to examine whether VEGF-C, a known ligand for VEGF-R3, served a function in podocyte biology and whether this was VEGF-R3 dependent. VEGF-C protein expression was localized to podocytes in contrast to VEGF-D, which was expressed in parietal epithelial cells. Intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) experiments demonstrated that VEGF-C induced a 0.74 ± 0.09-fold reduction in [Ca2+]icompared with baseline in human conditionally immortalized podocytes (hCIPs; P < 0.05, one sample t-test, n = 8). Cytotoxicity experiments revealed that in hCIPs VEGF-C reduced cytotoxicity to 81.4 ± 1.9% of serum-starved conditions ( P < 0.001, paired t-test, n = 16), similar to VEGF-A (82.8 ± 4.5% of serum-starved conditions, P < 0.05, paired t-test). MAZ51 (a VEGF-R3 kinase inhibitor) inhibited the VEGF-C-induced reduction in cytotoxicity (106.2 ± 2.1% of serum-starved conditions), whereas MAZ51 by itself had no cytotoxic effects on hCIPs. VEGF-C was also shown to induce a 0.5 ± 0.13-fold reduction in levels of MAPK phosphorylation compared with VEGF-A and VEGF-A-Mab treatment ( P < 0.05, ANOVA, n = 4), yet had no effect on Akt phosphorylation. Surprisingly, immunoprecipitation studies detected no VEGF-C-induced autophosphorylation of VEGF-R3 in hCIPs but did so in HMVECs. Moreover, SU-5416, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, blocked the VEGF-C-induced reduction in cytotoxicity (106 ± 2.8% of serum-starved conditions) at concentrations specific for VEGF-R1. Together, these results suggest for the first time that VEGF-C acts in an autocrine manner in cultured podocytes to promote survival, although the receptor or receptor complex activated has yet to be elucidated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R R Foster
- Microvascular Research Laboratories, Department of Physiology, and Academic Renal Unit, Southmead Hospital, University of Bristol, Bristol BS2 8EJ, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Thiele W, Sleeman JP. Tumor-induced lymphangiogenesis: a target for cancer therapy? J Biotechnol 2006; 124:224-41. [PMID: 16497404 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2006.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2005] [Revised: 11/07/2005] [Accepted: 01/04/2006] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in understanding the biology of lymphangiogenesis, the new growth of lymphatic vessels, have cast new light on the molecular basis of metastasis to regional lymph nodes. The receptor tyrosine kinase VEGFR-3 is virtually exclusively expressed on lymphatic but not blood endothelium in the adult, and activation of VEGFR-3 by its ligands VEGF-C and VEGF-D is sufficient to induce lymphangiogenesis. Correlative studies with human tumors and functional studies using animal tumor models show that increased levels of VEGF-C or VEGF-D in tumors lead to enhanced numbers of lymphatic vessels in the vicinity of tumors, which in turn promotes metastasis to regional lymph nodes by providing a greater number of entry sites into the lymphatic system for invading tumor cells. These findings have prompted studies to investigate whether inhibitors of VEGFR-3 activation might represent novel therapeutic agents for the suppression of metastasis. However, a number of points regarding the therapeutic potential of anti-lymphangiogenic treatments in the context of cancer remain to be addressed. The spectrum and relative importance of molecules that induce lymphangiogenesis and the regulation of their expression during tumor progression, the reversibility of tumor-induced lymphangiogenesis, and possible side-effects of anti-lymphangiogenesis-based therapies all need to be investigated. Most importantly, the extent to which lymph node metastases contribute to the formation of metastases in other organs remains to be elucidated. These aspects are the focus of this review, and their investigation should serve as a roadmap to possible translational application.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wilko Thiele
- Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Institut für Toxikologie und Genetik, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Yonemura Y, Endo Y, Tabata K, Kawamura T, Yun HY, Bandou E, Sasaki T, Miura M. Role of VEGF-C and VEGF-D in lymphangiogenesis in gastric cancer. Int J Clin Oncol 2006; 10:318-27. [PMID: 16247658 DOI: 10.1007/s10147-005-0508-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2005] [Accepted: 05/20/2005] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The molecular mechanisms of lymphangiogenesis induced by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C and VEGF-D in gastric cancer were studied. METHODS VEGF-C and VEGF-D gene expression vectors were transfected into the gastric cancer cell line KKLS, which did not originally express VEGF-C and VEGF-D, and stable transfectants (KKLS/VEGF-C and KKLS/VEGF-D) were established. The cell lines were inoculated into the subserosal layer of the stomach and subcutaneous tissue of nude mice. RESULTS VEGF-C and VEGF-D expression in KKLS/VEGF-C and KKLS/VEGF-D cells was found by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot analysis. Expression of mouse VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-2 and mouse VEGFR-3 mRNA was detected in the KKLS/VEGF-C and KKLS/VEGF-D gastric tumors. Newly formed lymphatic vessels were detected not only in the periphery but also in the center of the tumors. The intratumor lymphatic vessels connected with the preexisting lymphatic vessels in the muscularis mucosa. The average numbers of lymphatic vessels in KKLS/VEGF-C (52.0 +/- 9.5) and KKLS/VEGF-D (16.4 +/- 0.6) gastric tumors were significantly higher than that in the KKLS/control vector tumors (4.0 +/- 1.4). CONCLUSION VEGF-C and VEGF-D may induce neoformation of lymphatic vessels in experimental gastric tumors by the induction of VEGFR-3 expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yutaka Yonemura
- Gastric Surgery Division, Shizuoka Cancer Center, 1007 Shimo-Nagakubo, Shizuoka 411-8777, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
The field of lymphatic research has been recently invigorated by the identification of genes and mechanisms that control various aspects of lymphatic development. We are beginning to understand how, starting from a subgroup of embryonic venous endothelial cells, the whole lymphatic system forms in a stepwise manner. The generation of genetically engineered mice with defects in different steps of the lymphangiogenic program has provided models that are increasing our understanding of the lymphatic system in health and disease. This knowledge, in turn, should lead to the development of better diagnostic methods and treatments of lymphatic disorders and tumor metastasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Oliver
- Department of Genetics and Tumor Cell Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Björndahl M, Cao R, Nissen LJ, Clasper S, Johnson LA, Xue Y, Zhou Z, Jackson D, Hansen AJ, Cao Y. Insulin-like growth factors 1 and 2 induce lymphangiogenesis in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:15593-8. [PMID: 16230630 PMCID: PMC1266150 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0507865102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphangiogenesis is an important process that contributes to the spread of cancer. Here we show that insulin-like growth factors 1 (IGF-1) and 2 (IGF-2) induce lymphangiogenesis in vivo. In a mouse cornea assay, IGF-1 and IGF-2 induce lymphangiogenesis as detected with LYVE-1, a specific marker for lymphatic endothelium. Interestingly, IGF-1-induced lymphangiogenesis could not be blocked by a soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3, suggesting that the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3-signaling pathway is not required for IGF-induced lymphangiogenesis. In vitro, IGF-1 and IGF-2 significantly stimulated proliferation and migration of primary lymphatic endothelial cells. IGF-1 and IGF-2 induced phosphorylation of intracellular signaling components, such as Akt, Src, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase in lymphatic endothelial cells. Immunohistochemistry, RT-PCR, and Affymetrix GeneChip microarray analysis showed that the receptors for IGFs are present in lymphatic endothelium. Together, our findings suggest that IGFs might act as direct lymphangiogenic factors, although any indirect roles in the induction of lymphangiogenesis cannot be excluded. Because members of the IGF ligand and receptor families are widely expressed in various types of solid tumors, our findings suggest that these factors are likely to contribute to lymphatic metastasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meit Björndahl
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis Research, Microbiology and Tumor Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Akahane M, Akahane T, Matheny SL, Shah A, Okajima E, Thorgeirsson UP. Vascular endothelial growth factor-D is a survival factor for human breast carcinoma cells. Int J Cancer 2005; 118:841-9. [PMID: 16152591 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.21420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor-D (VEGF-D) stimulates growth of vascular and lymphatic endothelial cells by signaling through the tyrosine kinase receptors KDR (VEGFR-2) and Flt-4 (VEGFR-3). In the present study, we examined the effects of VEGF-D on apoptosis in human MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast carcinoma cells. Because VEGF-D was not expressed constitutively in vitro, stable VEGF-D transfectants were produced. The VEGF-D-expressing MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 lines displayed resistance to apoptosis induced by hypoxia, staurosporin and cycloheximide. Increased Bcl-2 expression, decreased homogenous caspase activities and inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage were associated with inhibition of apoptosis in VEGF-D-expressing clones. Also, caspase-3 activation was suppressed in the VEGF-D expressing MDA-MB-231 clone. The antiapoptotic effect of VEGF-D in vitro was recapitulated in vivo using VEGF-D-expressing MDA-MB-231 xenografts. The lack of VEGFR-2 protein expression by Western blot and ineffectiveness of a neutralizing VEGFR-2 antibody in eliminating the antiapoptotic effects of VEGF-D suggest a different and yet unknown signaling mechanism. Our findings indicate that VEGF-D has a novel function as a survival factor of breast carcinoma cells in addition to its established functions as an angiogenic and lymphangiogenic factor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manabu Akahane
- Laboratory of Cellular Carcinogenesis and Tumor Promotion, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Yan XC, Yu DM, Liu FX. [Advances in lymphangiogenesis and metastasis of tumor]. Zhonghua Bing Li Xue Za Zhi 2005; 34:370-2. [PMID: 16185511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
|
19
|
Baldwin ME, Halford MM, Roufail S, Williams RA, Hibbs ML, Grail D, Kubo H, Stacker SA, Achen MG. Vascular endothelial growth factor D is dispensable for development of the lymphatic system. Mol Cell Biol 2005; 25:2441-9. [PMID: 15743836 PMCID: PMC1061605 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.25.6.2441-2449.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (Vegfr-3) is a tyrosine kinase that is expressed on the lymphatic endothelium and that signals for the growth of the lymphatic vessels (lymphangiogenesis). Vegf-d, a secreted glycoprotein, is one of two known activating ligands for Vegfr-3, the other being Vegf-c. Vegf-d stimulates lymphangiogenesis in tissues and tumors; however, its role in embryonic development was previously unknown. Here we report the generation and analysis of mutant mice deficient for Vegf-d. Vegf-d-deficient mice were healthy and fertile, had normal body mass, and displayed no pathologic changes consistent with a defect in lymphatic function. The lungs, sites of strong Vegf-d gene expression during embryogenesis in wild-type mice, were normal in Vegf-d-deficient mice with respect to tissue mass and morphology, except that the abundance of the lymphatics adjacent to bronchioles was slightly reduced. Dye uptake experiments indicated that large lymphatics under the skin were present in normal locations and were functional. Smaller dermal lymphatics were similar in number, location, and function to those in wild-type controls. The lack of a profound lymphatic phenotype in Vegf-d-deficient mice suggests that Vegf-d does not play a major role in lymphatic development or that Vegf-c or another, as-yet-unknown activating Vegfr-3 ligand can compensate for Vegf-d during development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan E Baldwin
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Royal Melbourne Hospital, PO Box 2008, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Akahane M, Akahane T, Shah A, Okajima E, Thorgeirsson UP. A potential role for vascular endothelial growth factor-D as an autocrine growth factor for human breast carcinoma cells. Anticancer Res 2005; 25:701-7. [PMID: 15868899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vascular endothelial growth factor-D (VEGF-D) binds and activates vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2), which signals for angiogenesis, and VEGFR-3, which signals for lymphangiogenesis. Besides endothelial cells, VEGFR-2 has been detected on malignant cells, including human breast carcinoma cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS It was examined if ectopic expression of human VEGF-D affected growth of breast carcinoma cell lines in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS VEGF-D overexpressing clonal MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines displayed increased proliferative activities and upregulation of cyclins A, D1 and D3, compared to the vector control. Following subcutaneous inoculation of the MDA-MB-231 cells into nude mice, growth of the VEGF-D overexpressing cells was greatly accelerated. The tumor weight gain was accompanied by increased proliferative activity, cyclin A expression and microvascular density. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that VEGF-D functions both as an autocrine growth factor and a stimulator of angiogenesis in breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manabu Akahane
- Laboratory of Cellular Carcinogenesis and Tumor Promotion, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
Understanding the complex process of tumor metastasis is a problem which has challenged both clinician and scientist for well over 100 years. Defining molecular markers which reflect the metastatic potential of a tumor has also proved elusive. Recently, members of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family of glycoproteins have been demonstrated to be potent mediators of both blood vessel and lymphatic vessel formation in the context of tumor biology. Experimental studies in animal models combined with extensive clinicopathological data provide a compelling case indicating that members of the VEGF family play a key role in the formation of metastases in a broad range of solid tumors. The question of whether VEGF signaling pathways can now serve as therapeutic targets alone, or in combination with other forms of anti-cancer agents, needs to be addressed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven A Stacker
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Victoria, Australia.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Vlahakis NE, Young BA, Atakilit A, Sheppard D. The lymphangiogenic vascular endothelial growth factors VEGF-C and -D are ligands for the integrin alpha9beta1. J Biol Chem 2004; 280:4544-52. [PMID: 15590642 PMCID: PMC1368959 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m412816200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice homozygous for a null mutation of the integrin alpha9 subunit die 6-12 days after birth from bilateral chylothoraces suggesting an underlying defect in lymphatic development. However, until now the mechanisms by which the integrin alpha9beta1 modulates lymphangiogenesis have not been described. In this study we show that adhesion to and migration on the lymphangiogenic vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF-C and -D) are alpha9beta1-dependent. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts and human colon carcinoma cells (SW-480) transfected to express alpha9beta1 adhered and/or migrated on both growth factors in a concentration-dependent fashion, and both adhesion and migration were abrogated by anti-alpha9beta1 function-blocking antibody. In SW-480 cells, which lack cognate receptors for VEGF-C and -D, both growth factors induced alpha9beta1-dependent Erk and paxillin phosphorylation. Human microvascular endothelial cells, which express both alpha9beta1 and VEGF-R3, also adhered to and migrated on both growth factors, and both responses were blocked by anti-alpha9beta1 antibody. Furthermore, in a solid phase binding assay recombinant VEGF-C and -D bound to purified alpha9beta1 integrin in a dose- and cation-dependent fashion showing that VEGF-C and VEGF-D are ligands for the integrin alpha9beta1. The interaction between alpha9beta1 and VEGF-C and/or -D may begin to explain the abnormal lymphatic phenotype of the alpha9 knock-out mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas E. Vlahakis
- From the Lung Biology Center, University of California San Francisco, Box 2922, San Francisco, CA, 94143-2922
- Thoracic Disease Research Unit, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First St SW, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Bradford A. Young
- From the Lung Biology Center, University of California San Francisco, Box 2922, San Francisco, CA, 94143-2922
| | - Amha Atakilit
- From the Lung Biology Center, University of California San Francisco, Box 2922, San Francisco, CA, 94143-2922
| | - Dean Sheppard
- From the Lung Biology Center, University of California San Francisco, Box 2922, San Francisco, CA, 94143-2922
- § To whom correspondence should be addressed: Lung Biology Center, University of California, San Francisco, Box 2922, San Francisco, CA 94143-2922 Ph: 415-514-4270 Fax: 415-514-4278
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Shibuya M. [Regulation of angiogenesis by VEGF signaling]. Seikagaku 2004; 76:1534-42. [PMID: 15675367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Masabumi Shibuya
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Division of Genetics, 4-6-1 Shirokane-dai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Abstract
Although the process of vascular development has been well documented, little is understood about lymphatic vasculature formation, despite its importance in normal and pathologic conditions. The dysfunction or abnormal growth of lymphatic vessels is associated with lymphedema and cancer metastasis. The recent discovery of lymphangiogenic growth factors vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C and VEGF-D and of their receptor, VEGFR-3, on lymphatic endothelial cells has started to provide an understanding of the molecular mechanisms of lymphangiogenesis. In addition, other genes that participate in the specification of lymphatic endothelial cells and the modulation of lymphatic vascular development have been identified. The capacity to induce or inhibit lymphangiogenesis by the manipulation of such molecules offers new opportunities to understand the function of the lymphatic system and to develop novel treatments for lymphatic disorders. This review describes the main players in lymphangiogenesis that have been identified so far and the attempts to shed some light on the mysteries surrounding this process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meiko Takahashi
- Molecular & Cancer Research Unit, HMRO, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Kubo H. [Molecular mechanisms of lymphatic development]. Seikagaku 2004; 76:1210-6. [PMID: 15524110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Kubo
- Molecular & Cancer Research Unit, HMRO, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida Konoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Saharinen P, Tammela T, Karkkainen MJ, Alitalo K. Lymphatic vasculature: development, molecular regulation and role in tumor metastasis and inflammation. Trends Immunol 2004; 25:387-95. [PMID: 15207507 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2004.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pipsa Saharinen
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Biomedicum Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, University of Helsinki, P.O.B. 63 (Haartmaninkatu 8), 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Abstract
Nearly four centuries after the discovery of lymphatic vessels, the molecular mechanisms underlying their development are beginning to be elucidated. Vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGF-C) and VEGF-D, via signaling through VEGFR-3, appear to be essential for lymphatic vessel growth. Observations from clinicopathological studies have suggested that lymphatic vessels serve as the primary route for the metastatic spread of tumor cells to regional lymph nodes. Recent studies in animal models have provided convincing evidence that tumor lymphangiogenesis facilitates lymphatic metastasis. However, it is not clear how tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis is regulated, and little is known about how tumor cells escape from the primary tumor and gain entry into the lymphatics. This review examines some of these issues and provides a brief summary of the recent developments in this field of research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yulong He
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Biomedicum Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, University of Helsinki, POB 63 (Haartmaninkatu 8), 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Jia H, Bagherzadeh A, Bicknell R, Duchen MR, Liu D, Zachary I. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-D and VEGF-A differentially regulate KDR-mediated signaling and biological function in vascular endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:36148-57. [PMID: 15215251 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m401538200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-D binds to VEGF receptors (VEGFR) VEGFR2/KDR and VEGFR3/Flt4, but the signaling mechanisms mediating its biological activities in endothelial cells are poorly understood. Here we investigated the mechanism of action of VEGF-D, and we compared the signaling pathways and biological responses induced by VEGF-D and VEGF-A in endothelial cells. VEGF-D induced KDR and phospholipase C-gamma tyrosine phosphorylation more slowly and less effectively than VEGF-A at early times but had a more sustained effect and was as effective as VEGF-A after 60 min. VEGF-D activated extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1 and 2 with similar efficacy but slower kinetics compared with VEGF-A, and this effect was blocked by inhibitors of protein kinase C and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase. In contrast to VEGF-A, VEGF-D weakly stimulated prostacyclin production and gene expression, had little effect on cell proliferation, and stimulated a smaller and more transient increase in intracellular [Ca(2+)]. VEGF-D induced strong but more transient phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-mediated Akt activation and increased PI3K-dependent endothelial nitric-oxide synthase phosphorylation and cell survival more weakly. VEGF-D stimulated chemotaxis via a PI3K/Akt- and endothelial nitric-oxide synthase-dependent pathway, enhanced protein kinase C- and PI3K-dependent endothelial tubulogenesis, and stimulated angiogenesis in a mouse sponge implant model less effectively than VEGF-A. VEGF-D-induced signaling and biological effects were blocked by the KDR inhibitor SU5614. The finding that differential KDR activation by VEGF-A and VEGF-D has distinct consequences for endothelial signaling and function has important implications for understanding how multiple ligands for the same VEGF receptors can generate ligand-specific biological responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Jia
- Department of Medicine, The Rayne Institute, University College London, 5 University Street, London WC1E 6JJ, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Abstract
The dysfunction or proliferation of lymphatic vessels (lymphangiogenesis) is linked to a number of pathological conditions including lymphedema and cancer. The recent discovery and characterisation of the lymphangiogenic growth factors vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and VEGF-D and of their receptor on lymphatic endothelial cells, VEGFR-3, has provided an understanding of the molecular mechanisms controlling the growth of lymphatic vessels. In addition, other genes and protein markers have been identified with specificity for lymphatic endothelium that have enhanced the characterization and isolation of lymphatic endothelial cells. Our growing understanding of the molecules that control lymphangiogenesis allows us to design more specific drugs with which to manipulate the relevant signalling pathways. Modulating these pathways and other molecules with specificity to the lymphatic system could offer alternative treatments for a number of important clinical conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S A Stacker
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Post Office Box 2008, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Victoria 3050, Australia.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Rutanen J, Rissanen TT, Markkanen JE, Gruchala M, Silvennoinen P, Kivelä A, Hedman A, Hedman M, Heikura T, Ordén MR, Stacker SA, Achen MG, Hartikainen J, Ylä-Herttuala S. Adenoviral Catheter-Mediated Intramyocardial Gene Transfer Using the Mature Form of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-D Induces Transmural Angiogenesis in Porcine Heart. Circulation 2004; 109:1029-35. [PMID: 14967735 DOI: 10.1161/01.cir.0000115519.03688.a2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background—
It is unclear what is the most efficient vector and growth factor for induction of therapeutic vascular growth in the heart. Furthermore, the histological nature of angiogenesis and potential side effects caused by different vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) in myocardium have not been documented.
Methods and Results—
Adenoviruses (Ad) at 2 doses (2×10
11
and 2×10
12
viral particles) or naked plasmids (1 mg) encoding
Lac
Z control, VEGF-A
165
, or the mature, soluble form of VEGF-D (VEGF-D
ΔNΔC
) were injected intramyocardially with the NOGA catheter system into domestic pigs. AdVEGF-D
ΔNΔC
gene transfer (GT) induced a dose-dependent myocardial protein production, as measured by ELISA, resulting in an efficient angiogenic effect 6 days after the injections. Also, AdVEGF-A
165
produced high gene transfer efficacy, as demonstrated with immunohistochemistry, leading to prominent angiogenesis effects. Despite the catheter-mediated approach, angiogenesis induced by both AdVEGFs was transmural, with maximal effects in the epicardium. Histologically, strongly enlarged α-smooth muscle actin–positive microvessels involving abundant cell proliferation were found in the transduced regions, whereas microvessel density did not change. Myocardial contrast echocardiography and microspheres showed marked increases in perfusion in the transduced areas. VEGF-D
ΔNΔC
but not matrix-bound VEGF-A
165
was detected in plasma after adenoviral GT. A modified Miles assay demonstrated myocardial edema resulting in pericardial effusion with the higher AdVEGF doses. All effects returned to baseline by 3 weeks. Naked plasmid–mediated GT did not induce detectable protein production or vascular effects.
Conclusions—
Like AdVEGF-A
165
, AdVEGF-D
ΔNΔC
GT using the NOGA system produces efficient transmural angiogenesis and increases myocardial perfusion. AdVEGF-D
ΔNΔC
could be useful for the induction of therapeutic vascular growth in the heart.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juha Rutanen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute, Kuopio University, Finland
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|