Practitioners in search of an identity: A Delphi study of sport psychology professional identity

The existence of a professional identity among sport psychology practitioners (SPPs) can increase ethical and effective practice while also leading to more satisfactory careers and advancing awareness of professional roles. There is currently no consensus regarding a sport psychology professional identity (SPPI), a definition of this construct, and the factors influencing it. As such, in the present study, we sought consensus on a definition of SPPI and aimed to identify associated factors. A multinational panel of 39 SPPs from 6 different continents participated in a 3-round Delphi study. The panelists in this study, who were recruited based on their applied and scholarly experiences, constructed a shared definition of SPPI as an individual's professional self-concept concerning their sense of belonging and fit within the sport psychology profession. Further, the panelists also constructed a list of factors supporting (n = 13; e.g., knowledge and philosophy of the profession, personal meaning) and hindering (n = 10; e.g., isolation, non-traditional roles, lack of practitioner-environment fit) the development of SPPI. Professional organizations might use these results to advance professional development and training by integrating them into curricula for qualification processes. A clear understanding of what SPPI is and the factors that foster and hinder its development can support practitioners' wellbeing and practice as well as raise public awareness of what is the sport psychology profession.

Professional development of sport psychology practitioners: From systematic review to a model of development

A clear model of professional development (PD) has the potential to enhance educational and training programs and promote effective, competent, and ethical practice. Scholars have explored facets of the PD of sport psychology practitioners (SPPs) using theoretical frameworks borrowed from counseling psychology. Yet, given the emergence of a sport-specific body of work on this topic, it appears timely to take stock of existing context-specific knowledge. In the present study, we aimed to systematically review the extant literature focused on SPP's PD to identify specific characteristics and organize this knowledge in an accessible and structured manner in the form of a process model of PD. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we identified 1147 research records in the databases SportDiscuss, PsychArticles, PsychInfo, ProQuest, and PubMed. We subsequently screened and assessed the records for eligibility (i.e., empirical studies published in English that focus on developmental characteristics of SPPs, including a clear developmental stage) reducing the sample of articles that fitted our inclusion criteria to 34 qualitative manuscripts. Finally, we critically explored these manuscripts by engaging in a reflexive thematic analysis and created four developmental phases (i.e., introduction, exploration, solidification, and fulfillment). SPPs' transition through these phases is seemingly facilitated by four processes (i.e., reflection, supervision, connections and networking with peers, and learning by doing), which also support the completion of the tasks associated with nine developmental elements (i.e., purpose, confidence and anxiety, focus, awareness, adaptability, independence, philosophy/congruence, professional identity, and the individual). We present the interaction of these developmental phases, elements, and processes in the form of a sport psychology-specific process model of PD. We discuss the implications of this model and its potential contribution to future research, supervision, and training programs. Yet, we also acknowledge how a focus on Anglophone and Western cultural contexts and a lack of methodological transparency are limitations of the extant literature.

Strength and Conditioning Coaches' Perceptions of Sport Psychology Strategies

ABSTRACT

Quartiroli, A, Moore, EWG, and Zakrajsek, RA. Strength and conditioning coaches' perceptions of sport psychology strategies. . J Strength Cond Res 36(5): 1327-1334, 2022-Strength and conditioning coaches (SCCs) hold a central role in the development of student-athletes. Although they certainly focus on student-athletes' physical skill development, SCCs are in an ideal position to integrate mental skills into their strength and conditioning sessions. For example, sport psychology (SP) strategies can be used within strength and conditioning sessions to assist in athlete exercise execution by regulating arousal, improving concentration, confidence, as well as improve self-correction through self-talk and imagery. The purpose of this study was to assess collegiate SCCs' use of SP skills/strategies. A total sample of 415 SCCs (19.7% return rate) across the United States participated in an online survey. Although the majority of these coaches reported having less than moderate training in SP (59.9%), they also reported a moderate to high use of certain SP strategies (e.g., goal setting, self-talk). Strength and conditioning coaches' familiarity with, knowledge of, and confidence to use the SP strategies were found to be predictors of SCCs' frequency of SP strategy use. This study aimed to provide an initial exploration of SCCs' understanding and use of specific SP strategies, which was influenced by the SCCs' perceived level of preparation to use these strategies. For SCCs to be able to purposefully and confidently incorporate SP strategies into training sessions, the current study suggests the need for specific training aimed to enhance the SCCs' knowledge of and confidence in using specific SP strategies.

The Influence of Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control on Body Image: A Path-Analysis in Aspiring Fashion Models, Athletes and Students

It is widely documented that negative body image is a significant public health concern due to its association with symptoms of disordered eating and worse psychological well-being. The purpose of the study was to develop a path model of intrapersonal dimensions (self-efficacy and internal locus of control) as antecedents of perceived stress toward females’ body dissatisfaction and eating attitude disorders. A total of 300 females, including 100 aspiring fashion models, 100 athletes and 100 students (controls), between 15 and 24 years of age (M = 19.6, SD = 1.85) participated in the study. Measures included level of psychological stress, self-efficacy and locus of control dimensions, body dissatisfaction and eating attitude disorder indices. A path analysis confirmed our research hypothesis. Comparing the three subsamples, we found better fit indexes in the two subgroups with elevated investment on their body image with respect the control group. More specifically, the model in the group of aspiring fashion models showed the best fit index. These results indicated that aspiring fashion models have a strong desire to maintain their low body mass or to become thinner. For this reason, a suitable involvement of expert health workers in the nutritional and psychological field could be extremely essential in the fashion world to maintain a healthier well-being.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Lockdown on Coaches' Perception of Stress and Emotion Regulation Strategies

The recent global outspread of the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced the lives of people across multiple countries including athletes, coaches, and supporting staff. Along with everybody else, coaches found themselves constrained to an at-home self-isolation, which limited their ability to normally engage with their profession and to interact with their athletes. This situation may also have impacted their own psychological well-being. With this study, we explored coaches’ perceptions of stress in relation to their emotion regulation strategies depending upon their gender and competitive level (elite vs. non-elite). A sample of 2272 Italian coaches were surveyed during the period of lockdown. Mean values for perceived stress and emotion regulation strategies were compared to normative data of the two instruments as reported in the original studies. Furthermore, two Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) were completed to observe the potential differences in the coaches’ emotion regulation strategies and perception of stress. Finally, a blockwise regression analysis was run to assess how coaches’ emotion regulation strategies impacted upon their perception of stress. Both women and men reported higher levels of perceived stress than those reported in the normative data. Similarly, average scores for emotion regulation strategies were significantly different from those reported for normative data, in particular, coaches reported slightly higher use of emotion regulation strategies than participants in the original study. Significant gender-based differences emerged in terms of emotional regulations, with men adopting more suppression than women. No differences by competitive level were found. In terms of perceived stress, male coaches and elite coaches showed to be more in control of the situation (positive stress) than female coaches and non-elite coaches, respectively, while women experienced more negative stress than men. The blockwise regression evidenced how reappraisal resulted to be predictive in helping coaches to reduce their perception of stress, while suppression predicted higher stress perceptions.

Longitudinal Analysis of Marathon Runners' Psychological State and Its Relationship With Running Speed at Ventilatory Thresholds

Psychological variables such as motivation, self-efficacy, and anxiety have been widely studied in marathon runners, usually within the framework of Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy. It is also assumed a link between self-perceived fitness and physiological performance parameters such as speed at ventilatory thresholds and running economy. The purpose of this paper is to describe longitudinal trends of self-perceptions and examine their link to physiological performance parameters over time. Sixteen healthy recreational marathoners (8 males and 8 females), aged M = 37.6 (SD = 3.9) who were about to participate in a major marathon agreed to participate. After 3 months of regular training and competition in shorter distances, all participants trained during a 16-week macrocycle under the supervision of the same coaching staff. At 4-week intervals, the participants responded five times the Podium questionnaire, measuring self-perceived psychological state relative to the upcoming race, and performed five exercise performance parameters tests. Linear mixed-effects models were used to analyze the trends and associations. In general, Podium questionnaire scores were within the standard range, with the lowest values at the beginning and the highest values closer to race day. Although only perceived fitness (p < 0.001, Cohen’s f² = 1.19) and somatic anxiety (p < 0.001, f² = 0.32) showed large effect sizes for the whole longitudinal period, other partial increases were found between time points. All physiological performance parameters presented significant improvements over time (Aerobic Threshold speed, p < 0.001, f² = 1.04; Anaerobic Threshold speed, p < 0.001, f² = 0.498; Running Economy in VO₂, p < 0.001, f² = 0.349; Running Economy in energy, p = 0.024, f² = 0.197). The analysis of changes between consecutive time points revealed that improving perceived physical condition predicted improving self-efficacy (p < 0.001, f² = 1.33), and improvements in motivation were predicted by improvements in either self-efficacy (p < 0.001, f² = 0.36) or perceived physical condition (p = 0.003, f² = 0.17). Improvements in perceived fitness, self-efficacy and motivation were associated with small effect-size improvements (decreases) in anxiety. None of the physiological performance parameters was shown to predict changes in psychological variables, although their general trends over time correlated. The results have practical implications for sport psychologists and running coaches, supporting the need for integrated working.

Imagery ability of elite level athletes from individual vs. team and contact vs. no-contact sports

Background

In the sport context, imagery has been described as the condition in which persons imagine themselves while executing skills to deal with the upcoming task or enhance performance. Systematic reviews have shown that mental imagery improves performance in motor tasks

Methods

The aim of the present study was to explore whether imagery vividness (i.e., the clarity or realism of the imagery experience) and controllability (i.e., the ease and accuracy with which an image can be manipulated mentally) differ by sport types (team vs. individual and contact vs. non-contact). Participants were athletes from team contact and non-contact sports (rugby and volleyball, respectively), and individual contact and non-contact sports (karate and tennis, respectively) between the ages of 20 and 33 years (M = 24.37, SD = 2.85). The participants completed the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire, the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire-2, and the Mental Image Transformation Tasks.

Results

A 2 ×2 × 2 (gender × 2 contact-no-contact × 2 sport type) between groups MANOVA showed differences in imagery ability by sport type. Practical indications deriving from the findings of this study can help coaches and athletes to develop mental preparation programs using sport-specific imagery.

Cross-Cultural Validation of Mood Profile Clusters in a Sport and Exercise Context

Mood profiling has a long history in the field of sport and exercise. Several novel mood profile clusters were identified and described in the literature recently (Parsons-Smith et al., 2017). In the present study, we investigated whether the same clusters were evident in an Italian-language, sport and exercise context. The Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS; Quartiroli et al., 2017) was administered to 950 Italian-speaking sport participants (659 females, 284 males, 7 unspecified; age range = 16-63 year, M = 25.03, SD = 7.62) and seeded k-means clustering methodology applied to the responses. Six distinct mood profiles were identified, termed the iceberg, inverse iceberg, inverse Everest, shark fin, surface, and submerged profiles, which closely resembled those reported among English-speaking participants (Parsons-Smith et al., 2017). Significant differences were found in the distribution of specific mood profiles across gender and age groups. Findings supported the cross-cultural generalizability of the six mood profiles and offer new research avenues into their antecedents, correlates and behavioral consequences in Italian-language contexts.

(Dis)Obedience in U.S. American Young Adults: A New Way to Describe Authority Relationships

The present research aims to investigate the psychosocial phenomena of obedience and disobedience in young adults residing in the United States, as a replication of a previous study by Pozzi, Fattori, Bocchiaro, and Alfieri (2014). We utilize social representation theory as a means to better understand and define (dis)obedience, a behavioral dimension of the concept of authority. The analysis was conducted using a concurrent mixed methods design. One hundred and fifty-one participants completed a self-report online questionnaire. The results indicate that participants see both obedience and disobedience as related to an authority. Obedience was mostly perceived as an ability to be responsive to laws, social norms, or physical authorities, as well as a positive social object. Disobedience, instead, was defined as a failure of a negative line of conduct. These results differ from previous research, contributing meaningfully and pragmatically to the theoretical debate on (dis)obedience. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Development and Initial Validation of the Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS) for Use in Sport and Exercise Contexts

The current study presents initial validation statistics for the Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS), a culturally- and linguistically-validated Italian version of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS: Terry and Lane, 2010). The ITAMS was administered to 950 sport participants (659 females), who ranged in age from 16 to 63 years (M = 25.03, SD = 7.62). In the first stage of the validation process, statistical procedures in Mplus were used to evaluate the measurement model. Multigroup exploratory structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized 6-factor measurement model for males and females separately and for the combined sample. Analysis of the scale scores using SPSS provided further support for the construct validity of the ITAMS with hypothesized relationships observed between ITAMS scores and measures of depression and affect. The development and validation of the ITAMS opens the way for mood-related research and sport or exercise interventions requiring mood assessments, in an Italian-language context.

The Effects of a Lifetime Physical Fitness (LPF) Course on College Students' Health Behaviors

The purpose of this study was to examine motivational constructs and the effect of physical activity engagement on health behaviors in college students who were required to take a 15-week lifetime physical fitness (LPF) course for graduation. A total of fifty-eight first and second year college students aged between 17 and 23 years (M=18.72; SD=1.09). Paper and pencil questionnaires were anonymously administered at the beginning and at the end of the 15-week long spring 2012 semester. Analysis of the differences between the beginning and the end of the semester was completed. Physical activity behaviors and Behavioral Regulations variables did not change across time (p > .05). Appearance (d = -0.34, p = .013) and fitness (d = -0.37, p = .006) reasons for participating in physical activity and all Theory of Planned Behavior variables decreased over time (d = -0.32 to - 0.41, p < .05). Changes in attitude toward physical activity negatively predicted changes in alcohol consumption (r = -.261 to -.357). This study sustains the already existing literature that supports the positive impact of LPF courses offered to college students.

Vividness and transformation of mental images in karate and ballet

While imagery research has become popular in recent years, little research has specifically investigated differences in imagery ability between open- and closed-skill sport activities. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the type of task, open or closed, affects vividness and controllability differently. Thirty female classic dancers (closed skill), 30 female karate athletes (open skill), and 30 female non-athlete students, between 14 and 20 years of age (M = 17.0, SD = 1.6), participated. They completed the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire, the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire, and the Subtraction of Parts Task. There was no difference in imagery ability between open- and closed-skill sport groups. Furthermore, dancers and karatekas had higher mean scores on imagery ability than the non-athlete group. A positive correlation was observed between the two questionnaires, supporting findings on the componential basis of imagery. This study contributed to increase the research in the specific area of open- and closed-skill sports and imagery ability.

Feasibility of retrofitting a university library with active workstations to reduce sedentary behavior

BACKGROUND

Libraries are an inherently sedentary environment, but are an understudied setting for sedentary behavior interventions.

PURPOSE

To investigate the feasibility of incorporating portable pedal machines in a university library to reduce sedentary behaviors.

METHODS

The 11-week intervention targeted students at a university library. Thirteen portable pedal machines were placed in the library. Four forms of prompts (e-mail, library website, advertisement monitors, and poster) encouraging pedal machine use were employed during the first 4 weeks. Pedal machine use was measured via automatic timers on each machine and momentary time sampling. Daily library visits were measured using a gate counter. Individualized data were measured by survey. Data were collected in fall 2012 and analyzed in 2013.

RESULTS

Mean (SD) cumulative pedal time per day was 95.5 (66.1) minutes. One or more pedal machines were observed being used 15% of the time (N=589). Pedal machines were used at least once by 7% of students (n=527). Controlled for gate count, no linear change of pedal machine use across days was found (b=-0.1 minutes, p=0.75) and the presence of the prompts did not change daily pedal time (p=0.63). Seven of eight items that assessed attitudes toward the intervention supported intervention feasibility (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The unique non-individualized approach of retrofitting a library with pedal machines to reduce sedentary behavior seems feasible, but improvement of its effectiveness is needed. This study could inform future studies aimed at reshaping traditionally sedentary settings to improve public health.

Predictors of weight loss maintenance following an insurance-sponsored weight management program

Intentional weight loss among overweight and obese adults (body mass index ≥ 25 kg/m(2)) is associated with numerous health benefits, but weight loss maintenance (WLM) following participation in weight management programming has proven to be elusive. Many individuals attempting to lose weight join formal programs, especially women, but these programs vary widely in focus, as do postprogram weight regain results. We surveyed 2,106 former participants in a community-based, insurance-sponsored weight management program in the United States to identify the pre, during, and post-intervention behavioral and psychosocial factors that lead to successful WLM. Of 835 survey respondents (39.6% response rate), 450 met criteria for inclusion in this study. Logistic regression analyses suggest that interventionists should assess and discuss weight loss and behavior change perceptions early in a program. However, in developing maintenance plans later in a program, attention should shift to behaviors, such as weekly weighing, limiting snacking in the evening, limiting portion sizes, and being physically active every day.

Self-determined Engagement in Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviors of US College Students

Although the importance of promoting physical activity is well established, researchers have recently considered "sedentary behaviors" as another key risk factor for chronic disease. However, little is known about the motivational processes regulating sedentary behavior on a daily basis. A substantial amount of research has been based on the self-determination theory to examine the motivational processes regulating physical activity behaviors. However, only limited attention has been paid to sedentary behaviors from this theoretical perspective. This study aims to identify and understand motivational aspects related to sedentary behavior from a self-determination perspective. A convenience sample of undergraduate students (N=875) enrolled in a university required Lifetime Physical Activity and Fitness class completed an online survey which inquired about physical activity and sedentary behaviors as well as about motivational variables related to these behaviors. Physical activity variables were inversely and only slightly related to sedentary behavior (ρ = -.084 to -.146, p < .05). Psychological needs and behavioral regulations together explained 14.3% of the variance in moderate-to-vigorous physical-activity (p < .001), but only 2.8% of the variance in sedentary behavior (p = .002). These findings suggest physical activity and sedentary behaviors are explained by unique motivational factors.