Effects of a Singular Dose of Mangiferin-Quercetin Supplementation on Basketball Performance: A Double-Blind Crossover Study of High-Level Male Players

Pre-exercise mangiferin-quercetin may enhance athletic performance. This study investigated the effect of mangiferin-quercetin supplementation on high-level male basketball players during a basketball exercise simulation test (BEST) comprising 24 circuits of 30 s activities with various movement distances. The participants were divided into two groups (EXP = 19 and CON = 19) and given a placebo one hour before the BEST (PRE-condition). The following week, the EXP group received mangiferin-quercetin (84 mg/140 mg), while the CON group received a placebo (POST-condition) before the BEST in a double-blind, cross-over design. The mean heart rate (HR) and circuit and sprint times (CT and ST) during the BEST were measured, along with the capillary blood lactate levels (La-), the subjective rating of muscle soreness (RPMS), and the perceived exertion (RPE) during a resting state prior to and following the BEST. The results showed significant interactions for the mean CT (p = 0.013) and RPE (p = 0.004); a marginal interaction for La- (p = 0.054); and non-significant interactions for the mean HR, mean ST, and RPMS. Moreover, the EXP group had significantly lower values in the POST condition for the mean CT (18.17 ± 2.08 s) and RPE (12.42 ± 1.02) compared to the PRE condition (20.33 ± 1.96 s and 13.47 ± 1.22, respectively) and the POST condition of the CON group (20.31 ± 2.10 s and 13.32 ± 1.16, respectively) (p < 0.05). These findings highlight the potential of pre-game mangiferin-quercetin supplementation to enhance intermittent high-intensity efforts in sports such as basketball.

Analysis of a comprehensive dataset: Influence of vaccination profile, types, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 re-infections on changes in sports-related physical activity one month after infection

This dataset was created with the primary objective of elucidating the intricate relationship between the incidence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) re-infections and the pre-illness vaccination profile and types concerning alterations in sports-related physical activity (PA) after SARS-CoV-2 infection among adults. A secondary objective encompassed a comprehensive statistical analysis to explore the influence of three key factors-namely, Vaccination profile, Vaccination types, and Incidence of SARS-CoV-2 re-infections-on changes in PA related to exercise and sports, recorded at two distinct time points: one to two weeks prior to infection and one month after the last SARS-CoV-2 infection. The sample population (n = 5829), drawn from Hellenic territory, adhered to self-inclusion and exclusion criteria. Data collection spanned from February to March 2023 (a two-month period), involving the utilization of the Active-Q (an online, interactive questionnaire) to automatically assess weekly habitual sports-related PA among adults both before and after their last SARS-CoV-2 infection. The questionnaire also captured participant characteristics, pre-illness vaccination statuses (i.e., unvaccinated, partially vaccinated, fully vaccinated, and vaccine types), and occurrences of SARS-CoV-2 re-infections. The dataset sheds light on two noteworthy phenomena: (i) the intricate interplay between post-acute SARS-CoV-2 infection and a decline in sports-related physical activity (-27.6 ± 0.6%, 95%CI: -26.1 - -29.1), influenced by the pre-illness vaccination profile factor (p = 0.040); and (ii) the divergence in sports-related physical activity decline between partially vaccinated (-38.2 ± 0.7%, 95%CI: -35.3 - -41.1, p = 0.031) and fully vaccinated respondents (-19.2 ± 0.5%, 95%CI: -17.2 - -21.2). These phenomena underscore the imperative for tailored interventions and further investigation to promote the resumption of physical activity and mitigate long-term repercussions. Furthermore, this dataset enriches our understanding of the dynamics of sports-related physical activity and provides valuable insights for public health initiatives aiming to address the consequences of COVID-19 on sports-related physical activity levels. Consequently, this cross-sectional dataset is amenable to a diverse array of analytical methodologies, including univariate and multivariate analyses, and holds potential relevance for researchers, leaders in the sports and medical sectors, and policymakers, all of whom share a vested interest in fostering initiatives directed at reinstating physical activity and mitigating the enduring ramifications of post-acute SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Vaccination coverage of primary care providers against seasonal influenza, tetanus, pneumococcal pneumonia and herpes zoster: A cross-sectional study in Greece

Introduction

Primary care providers' (PCPs) compliance to self-immunization is important for their protection and the protection of their colleagues and patients and has been associated with the coverage of the general public. In this study, we aim to investigate the vaccination coverage of PCPs.

Methods

A questionnaire-based cross-sectional survey was conducted among physicians, nurses and pharmacists employed in public or private primary care settings in Greece. Demographic and occupational characteristics as well as vaccination coverage data for influenza, tetanus, pneumococcal pneumonia and herpes zoster were collected. Statistical significance was set at 0.05.

Results

In total, 748 (61.7% response rate) PCPs participated. Vaccination rates were 66.4% (496/747) for influenza (2019/2020 flu season), 62.9% (469/746) for tetanus (10-year Td or Tdap booster dose), 70% (14/20) for pneumococcal pneumonia (≥ 1 dose of PPSV23 or PCV13) and 12.3% (10/81) for herpes zoster. Multiple logistic regression revealed that nurses had significantly lower probability of being vaccinated against influenza [odds ratio (OR) = 0.25; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.14-0.45] and pharmacists had significantly lower probability of being vaccinated against both influenza (OR = 0.44; 95% CI = 0.31-0.62) and influenza & tetanus (OR = 0.52; 95% CI = 0.37-0.73) compared to physicians. Older age (>40 years) was an independent risk factor for not receiving a tetanus vaccine (40-49 vs. 19-39; OR = 0.42; 95% CI = 0.28-0.63, over 50 years old vs. 19-39; OR = 0.54; 95% CI = 0.36-0.79).

Conclusions

The results revealed suboptimal vaccination rates among health providers who are in the frontline of adult immunization. Individualized and targeted measures to improve their vaccination coverage and indirectly the vaccination coverage of their patients, are therefore required.

Exploring the Impact of COVID-19 on Physical Activity One Month after Infection and Its Potential Determinants: Re-Infections, Pre-Illness Vaccination Profiles/Types, and Beyond

This study investigated changes in physical activity (PA) after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection while considering age, PA level, underlying medical conditions (UMCs), vaccination profiles/types, re-infections, disease severity, and treatment. Data were collected from 5829 respondents by using a validated web-based questionnaire. The findings showed that there was a significant overall decrease in PA (-16.2%), including in daily occupation (-11.9%), transportation (-13.5%), leisure-time (-16.4%), and sporting (-27.6%) activities. Age, PA level, UMCs, vaccination profiles/types, disease severity, and treatment played a role in determining PA in individuals' post-acute SARS-CoV-2 infections. Re-infections did not impact the decline in PA. Unvaccinated individuals experienced a significant decline in PA (-13.7%). Younger (-22.4%) and older adults (-22.5%), those with higher PA levels (-20.6%), those with 2-5 UMCs (-23.1%), those who were vaccinated (-16.9%) or partially vaccinated (-19.1%), those with mRNA-type vaccines only (-17.1%), those with recurrent (-19.4%)-to-persistent (-54.2%) symptoms, and those that required hospital (-51.8%) or intensive care unit (-67.0%) admission during their infections had more pronounced declines in PA. These findings emphasize the complex relationship between post-acute SARS-CoV-2 infection and PA and highlight the need for targeted interventions, further research, and multidisciplinary care to promote PA resumption and mitigate long-term effects on global public health.

Time Course of Performance Indexes, Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Muscle Damage Markers after a Female Futsal Match

BACKGROUND

Our aims were to investigate the time-course effects of a futsal match on performance, oxidative stress, and muscle damage markers, as well as inflammatory and antioxidant responses during a 6-day post-match period.

METHODS

Thirty-four female high-level futsal players were assessed on several oxidative stress, inflammation, subjective muscle soreness, subjective rate perceived exertion, and performance tests before a futsal match, immediately after, and 24 h to 144 h after.

RESULTS

Counter movement jump, 20 m, and 10 m sprints performance significantly decreased immediately after the match (p < 0.05) and returned to baseline 72 h post-match (p > 0.05). Delayed onset muscle soreness peaked 24 h post-match and rate perceived exertion peaked post-match (p < 0.05) and returned to baseline 96 h post-match (p > 0.05). Inflammatory biomarkers peaked at 24 h (p < 0.05) and remained significantly elevated for 72 h after the match (p < 0.05). Muscle damage biomarkers peaked at 24 h (p < 0.05) and remained significantly (p < 0.05) elevated for at least 72 h after the match. Oxidative stress markers peaked at 24 h-48 h (p < 0.05) and returned to baseline 120 h post-match (p > 0.05). In respect to antioxidant responses, these peaked at 24 h-48 h post-match (p < 0.05) and returned to baseline 120 h after the match (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

A single futsal match induces short/mid-term changes in performance, inflammation, oxidative stress, and muscle damage markers for about 72 h-96 h post-match.

Meta-Analysis of Carbohydrate Solution Intake during Prolonged Exercise in Adults: From the Last 45+ Years' Perspective

Carbohydrate (CHO) supplementation during prolonged exercise postpones fatigue. However, the optimum administration timing, dosage, type of CHO intake, and possible interaction of the ergogenic effect with athletes' cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are not clear. Ninety-six studies (from relevant databases based on predefined eligibility criteria) were selected for meta-analysis to investigate the acute effect of ≤20% CHO solutions on prolonged exercise performance. The between-subject standardized mean difference [SMD = ([mean post-value treatment group-mean post-value control group]/pooled variance)] was assessed. Overall, SMD [95% CI] of 0.43 [0.35, 0.51] was significant (p < 0.001). Subgroup analysis showed that SMD was reduced as the subjects' CRF level increased, with a 6-8% CHO solution composed of GL:FRU improving performance (exercise: 1-4 h); administration during the event led to a superior performance compared to administration before the exercise, with a 6-8% single-source CHO solution increasing performance in intermittent and 'stop and start' sports and an ~6% CHO solution appearing beneficial for 45-60 min exercises, but there were no significant differences between subjects' gender and age groups, varied CHO concentrations, doses, or types in the effect measurement. The evidence found was sound enough to support the hypothesis that CHO solutions, when ingested during endurance exercise, have ergogenic action and a possible crossover interaction with the subject's CRF.

Impact of lockdown on smoking and sleeping in the early COVID-19 presence: Datasets of Greek Adults sample

The impact of lockdown on life style and behaviour have piqued the interest of people and scientific community, all over the world. It has been demonstrated that in some countries, mandatory stay-at-home limitations and self-isolation measures are linked to an increase in sleeping hours and smoking cigarettes per day. However, these results derive from countries that lockdown had different features and length, and it is possible that society, culture, customs, ecological or other factors may independently or in combination affect life style habits (such sleeping and smoking) in different populations. So, we focus on sleeping and smoking changes in Greek adults during the lockdown of early COVID-19 presence in Greece. Therefore, our aim was to investigate whether lockdown alters smoking and sleeping habits and whether physical activity (PA), gender, age or body mass index (BMI) play a role. The modified online-based Active-Q (Greek version) questionnaire (see Supplementary file 1_Active-Q_modyfied) was used to collect data prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (PRE condition) and during physical distancing and lockdown measures (POST condition). The data period collection was from April 4 to April 19, 2020 (15 days in total) and respondents classified into four PA categories based on their sporting activities (PRE condition), five age categories and four BMI categories, which corresponding to different subgroup. Overall, sleeping hours change (from PRE to POST condition) was 11.80% and smoking cigarettes per day change was 9.35%. However, it appears that between the different subgroups significant differences were also identified.

Return to Basketball Play Following COVID-19 Lockdown

Due to concerns regarding the spread of coronavirus (COVID-19), major sporting events and activities have been temporarily suspended or postponed, and a new radical sports protocol has emerged. For most sports there are few recommendations based on scientific evidence for returning to team-game activities following the lifting of COVID-19 restrictions, the extended duration of lockdown, and self-training or detraining in the COVID-19 environment, and this is especially true for basketball. A post-lockdown return to the basketball court ultimately depends on the teams-coaches, trainers, players, and medical staff. Nevertheless, our current scientific knowledge is evidently insufficient as far as safety and return-to-play timing are concerned. This situation presents a major challenge to basketball competition in terms of organization, prioritization, maintaining physical fitness, and decision-making. While preparing an adequate basketball return program, the players' health is the major priority. In this article we briefly discuss the topic and propose multiple strategies.

The Effect of Moral Disengagement on Bullying: Testing the Moderating Role of Personal and Social Factors

Bullying is a subset of aggressive behavior that has severe consequences in children's psychosocial development. Bullying behaviors can be influenced by personal and social factors, such as gender, age, school type, and sport participation, as well as psychological constructs, such as moral disengagement. The present study was designed to investigate the effect of moral disengagement on bullying behaviors and the moderating role of personal and social factors. In this study, 2,252 students (M = 13.57, SD = 1.17; 1,125 girls, and 1,127 boys) attending the sixth grade of primary school and secondary education have participated. Participants completed the revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire and Bandura's Moral Disengagement Questionnaire along with general questions about their demographic characteristics. The results of the analyses demonstrated moderation effects of gender on the moral disengagement-physical bullying relationship and of age on the moral disengagement-verbal bullying relationship. No significant moderating effect emerged for school type and sport participation. The findings of the present study provide valuable information about the role of personal and social factors on bullying behavior.

Reliability of the Random Number Generation Test of Attentional Deployment

This study examined the performance and internal consistency reliability of the Random Number Generation test of attention over repeated trials. Performance remained stable when the first trial was omitted from the analysis, while reliability coefficients ranged from 0.67 to 0.78.

The effect of high vs. low carbohydrate diets on distances covered in soccer

The purpose of this study was to compare the distances covered during a 11-a-side soccer match after players had consumed either a high carbohydrate (CHO) or a low CHO diet. Twenty-two male professional soccer players formed 2 teams (A and B), of similar age, body characteristics, and training experience. The 2 teams played against each other twice with a week interval between. For 3.5 days before the first match, the players of team A followed a high CHO diet that provided 8 g CHO per kg body mass (BM) (HC), whereas team B players followed a low CHO diet that provided 3 g CHO per kg BM (LC) for the same time period. Before the second match the dietary treatment was reversed and followed for the same time period. Training during the study was controlled, and distances covered were measured using global positioning system technology. Every player covered a greater total distance in HC compared with the distance covered in LC (HC: 9,380 ± 98 m vs. LC: 8,077 ± 109 m; p < 0.01). All distances covered from easy jogging (7.15 km·h-1) to sprinting (24.15 km·h-1) were also higher in HC compared with LC (p < 0.01). When players followed the HC treatment, they won the match (team A vs. team B: 3-1 for the first game and 1-2 for the second game). The HC diet probably helped players to cover a greater distance compared with LC. Soccer players should avoid eating a low (3 g CHO per kg BM) CHO diet 3-4 days before an important soccer match and have a high CHO intake that provides at least 8 g CHO per kg BM.

Gender and age differences in self-reported aggression of high school students

The purpose of the study was to (a) investigate gender and age differences in physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility, and (b) examine the discriminatory power of the Greek version of the Aggression Questionnaire (GAQ) with high school students. The sample of the study consisted of 658 high school students (321 boys and 337 girls), with an age range from 13 to 17 years (M = 15.3, SD = 1.5). The students completed the Aggression Questionnaire adapted to Greek. Regarding gender, the overall correct identification rate in the discriminant analysis showed that 73.3% of the cases were correctly classified. In addition, the results indicated that physical aggression declined with age and that, compared to boys, girls of higher grades apply more indirect forms of aggression, such as anger and hostility. The findings of the study provide important information regarding the expression of aggressive behavior during adolescence.

Specificity and variability of practice, and contextual interference in acquisition and transfer of an underhand volleyball serve

The present study investigated the effects of practice composition on acquisition and transfer of the underhand volleyball serve in a standard high school physical education setting. 72 middle-school students (M age = 14.1 yr., SD = 0.7) were selected and assigned to six groups: five experimental (Random, Serial, Blocked, Constant, Specific), and one Control group all pretested. The five experimental groups received 45 acquisition trials over three class periods. Directional quantitative knowledge of results was provided to the students after each trial. After a 72-hr. retention interval, all groups performed 15 underhand volleyball serves without knowledge of results. Analyses indicated (a) better acquisition in the Specific and Constant groups relative to the Serial, Random, and Blocked groups, and (b) significantly superior transfer performance in the Specific and Random groups relative to the Serial, Blocked, Constant, and Control groups. This provides partial support for specificity of learning and contextual interference hypotheses. Practice in accord with the contextual interference hypothesis permits differentiations among varied practice schedules only during transfer.

The effect of a 4-week training regimen on body fat and aerobic capacity of professional soccer players during the transition period

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the changes in body fat percentage and aerobic capacity in professional soccer players, after the implementation of a specific 4-week training regimen during the transition period. Fifty-eight professional soccer players of the Greek Premier National Division were separated in experimental (n = 38) and control groups (n = 20). Body composition and maximum oxygen intake were evaluated before and after a 4-week training regimen followed during the transition period. The experimental design used for analyzing weight (kg), percent body fat (%) and VO2 max values (ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) was a 2 x 2 (Groups x Measures), with Groups as a between-subjects factor and Measures as a within-subjects factor. The level of significance was set at p < or = 0.05 for all analyses. Analyses of variances showed that the experimental and the control groups achieved statistically significant (a) increases from pretest to posttest measures in body weight (0.595 kg and 1.425 kg, respectively) and percent body fat (0.25 and 0.82, respectively), and (b) decreases in VO2 max values from pretest to posttest measures (0.81 and 3.56, respectively). The findings of the study revealed that the players who followed the training regimen compared with the players that did not follow any specific training program gained less weight and body fat and exhibited lower reduction in their VO2 max values.

KR-withdrawal and self-paced motor performance

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of KR-withdrawal on performance and the chronological profile of KR-delivery following the self-paced procedure and the blank trial technique. 120 participants were randomly separated into 12 groups and practiced finding an 8-in. line with no fixed starting and ending points. Appropriate 12 x 3 (groups by blocks of trials) analyses of variance and a prior contrasts were conducted to analyze all dependent variables (absolute error, variable error, movement time, KR-delay, post-KR interval, and KR-delay by post-KR interval ratio). The results indicated that (a) accuracy decreased significantly when KR was withdrawn early in practice, while the effects of KR-withdrawal later in practice affected accuracy differently. (b) Early in practice, participants performed at the same level of consistency even when KR was withdrawn; however, later in practice, the participants were less variable. (c) Movement time, KR-delay, and post-KR-interval were affected differently during early and later stages of practice. (d) Moderate to high correlations between absolute error and post-KR intervals may indicate the development of mechanisms for error detection.

Re-examining the temporal locus of knowledge of results (KR): a self-paced approach to learning

Using a self-paced procedure, the effects of unconfounded temporal locus of KR in the acquisition of a simple linear-positioning task was examined. Changes in the chronological profile of KR delivery were evaluated when participants manipulated the time course of the experiment at their own discretion. 29 participants (18 to 32 years) practiced finding an 8-in. line with no fixed starting and ending points. One-way repeated-measures analyses of variance, simple regression analyses across blocks of practice (30), and Pearson product-moment correlations between the KR-time intervals and the performance scores indicated that (a) under self-paced procedures both the KR-delay and post-KR interval decreased congruently with performance error scores, while the temporal component of the task (movement time) and the ratio between the KR-delay and the post-KR interval remained unchanged, (b) any effect on intertrial interval and interstimulus interval in motor skill acquisition should be examined in terms of the KR-delay and post-KR interval, and (c) the relationship between the performance scores and post-KR interval may be used to indicate the point at which KR is no longer required.

More practice does not necessarily enhance transfer of learning: evidence and interpretations

The purpose of this study was to investigate what was learned and transferred of a criterion task using a transfer task and a self-paced procedure. Based on the results of two previous studies, five durations of practice were specifically selected to examine what can be transferred to a new task after different amounts of practice (40, 75, 100, 125, and 150 acquisition trials) on a criterion task. The criterion task required subjects to practice finding an 8-in. line with no fixed starting and ending points from left to right. The transfer task was different from the criterion task in two dimensions, distance (10-in. line) and direction (right to left). 50 volunteers were randomly assigned into 5 groups. Appropriate 5 x 2 (groups by blocks of practice) analyses of variance and a priori contrasts were conducted for all dependent variables (absolute error, variable error, movement time, KR-delay, post-KR interval, intertrial interval, interstimulus interval, and KR-delay by post-KR interval ratio) to examine the effects of terminal acquisition of the criterion task on the initial performance of the transfer task. Analysis indicated that, during practice, participants developed a functional interaction between performance characteristics and chronological profile of KR-delivery of the criterion task that was transferable to the transfer task. Also, practice beyond a certain point was detrimental to the ability to transfer what was learned.

Elevation of core temperature and mental functioning

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether raised core temperature due to gradually increased amounts of exercise affects concentration and speed of information processing, 20 paid men, separated into groups of high (> 56 ml/kg/min.) and low fitness (< 46 ml/kg/min.) according to their maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), participated in two experimental conditions (exercise and control). Concentration was measured by the Random Number Generation test of attentional deployment given every 10 min. of cycling at workloads calculated as 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80% of individual VO2max values and 10 min. after exercise cessation (exhaustion). Speed of information processing was estimated by an eight-choice reaction time/movement time task given before and after exercise and 15 min. after exercise cessation. Core temperature was recorded at the same time individuals were administered the psychological tests. Analyses indicated that core temperatures increased significantly as a function of exercise intensity for high and low fitness groups. Correlations among the psychophysiological factors indicated that increases in core temperature were not associated with mental functioning. However, at certain core temperatures, core temperature and average choice reaction time/movement time were associated with participants' fitness.

Perceived exertion during physical exercise among individuals high and low in fitness

This study was conducted to investigate the influence of fitness level and gradually increased amounts of exercise on individuals' ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). 20 men served as paid subjects. They were divided into groups of high ( > 56 ml/kg/min.) and low fitness ( < 46 ml/kg/min.) according to their maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 (max)). Participants were required to pedal on a cycle ergometer at a progressively increased workload (every 10 min.) corresponding to 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80% of individual VO2 (max) values. Heart rates, RPE, and core temperatures were recorded every 5th minute after the initiation of exercising at a specific workload. Analysis indicated that, when controlling for VO2 (max) values, elevations of heart rate and core temperature were not affected by fitness. However, highly fit individuals perceived themselves under less exertion than did the group low in fitness. Correlations showed that, taking into consideration fitness, there is a stronger relationship between RPE and heart rate and RPE and core temperature for the highly fit individuals than for the less fit.

Information processing and concentration as a function of fitness level and exercise-induced activation to exhaustion

To examine the effects of increasing amounts of exercise on attention and speed of information processing 20 paid male subjects were separated into groups of high and low fitness according to their VO2max values. The experiment involved an attentional task (Random Number Generation) that was given after every 10 min. of cycling at work-load resistances calculated as 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, and 80% of individual VO2max values. An eight-choice reaction time-movement time task was given before and after exercise as well as after a 15-min. recovery period. Individuals were tested within 10 min. after exercise cessation (exhaustion) for concentration and within 15 min. for choice reaction time and movement time to assess whether fitness differentially interacted with these variables. Split-plot factorial analyses of variance suggested that the CNS appeared capable of maintaining performance after 50 min. of exhaustive exercise compared to values obtained at the preexercise condition. A 15-min. recovery period significantly impaired MT but relatively highly fit individuals did not appear to perform the choice RT and concentration tasks better than individuals low in fitness.

Temporal locus of knowledge of results: a meta-analytic review

Meta-analysis was performed to evaluate the temporal locus of knowledge of results. An extensive literature review was conducted, yielding 17 published articles suitable for the meta-analyses. These studies were then separated into 2 general categories of acquisition and retention. These categories were subdivided further into KR delay interval, KR delay and motor interpolated activities, KR delay and verbal interpolated activities, post-KR interval, post-KR interval and motor interpolated activities, and post-KR interval and verbal interpolated activities. 6 of the 12 categories gave enough data for the meta-analyses. The categories which showed significant results were KR-delay, post-KR interval, and post-KR interval and verbal interpolated activities in acquisition. Although significant, effect sizes were comparatively small. The discussion of findings focused on effects of the temporal locus of KR and interpolated activities on performance and learning.