Photon upconversion for the enhancement of microfluidic photochemical synthesis

Photochemical transformations are greatly improved in yield by fluidic reactor technology. However, the delivery of synthetically-active light to the reactants is a challenge. Here, we use upconversion in a bio-inspired microreactor to augment the flux of critical wavelengths of light. This new technology increased of a model reaction by converting a greater portion of sunlight to photochemically-available photons.

Photochemical transformations are greatly improved in yield by fluidic reactor technology.

Photothermal Nanoparticle Initiation Enables Radical Polymerization and Yields Unique, Uniform Microfibers with Broad Spectrum Light

Photothermal processes are utilized across a variety of fields, from separations to medicine, and are an area of active research. Herein, the action of a solar simulator upon carbon black nanoparticles is shown to result in photothermally initiated chain-growth polymerization of methyl acrylate, butyl acrylate, and methyl methacrylate initiated by benzoyl peroxide. With use of methyl acrylate as the model system, products from this reaction are shown to be apparently indistinguishable on the molecular level, but result in unique microstructures relative to the thermal controls. The relative contribution of bands of the UV/visible spectrum to the polymerization initiation show that red/infrared wavelengths are most important for the initiation to occur. Kinetic analysis of the initiator homolysis indicate that the apparent reaction rate is accelerated in the photothermal condition.

Sex reversal of the newt Triturus cristatus reared at extreme temperatures

Crested newt larvae were reared at defined temperatures, either from uncleaved eggs or from early feeding larvae, until metamorphosis when sexual differentiation had occurred. Trials at 18-24 degrees C showed a 1:1 sex ratio. A higher temperature trial produced more males than females, including some XX neomales. Lower temperatures resulted in a significant excess of females, including XY neofemales. Sex reversal only occurred in about half the possible cases on average. Extreme temperatures must perturb the normal XX/XY system of sex determination, to reveal either an ancestral ZZ/ZW system or a still more primitive environmental control. It is suggested that neofemales (but not neomales) could occur in nature.

Amphibian sex determination and sex reversal

Amphibians employ a genetic mechanism of sex determination, according to all available information on sex chromosomes or breeding tests. Sex reversal allows breeding tests to establish which sex is heterogametic and provides an indication of the mechanism of sex determination. Cases of spontaneous and experimental sex reversal (by temperature, hormones or surgery) are reviewed and illustrated by previously unpublished studies on crested newts. These newts respond conventionally to temperature and hormone treatment but provide anomalous results from breeding tests. It is suggested that both the evolution from temperature dependency to a genetic switch and from ZZ/ZW to XX/XY are superimposed on a generally uniform mechanism of sex determination in all vertebrates.

Lampbrush chromosomes and chiasmata of sex-reversed crested newts

Triturus cristatus carnifex provides a particularly clear example of sexual dimorphism for chiasma frequency and localisation. Oocytes from normal XX females routinely carry one proximal chiasma on each arm of their lampbrush bivalents. Spermatocytes from normal XY males have more numerous and relatively distal chiasmata. Lampbrush chromosomes from the oocytes of sex-reversed XY neofemales are found to resemble those from normal oocytes in having one proximal chiasma on each bivalent arm. A comparison of particular markers on the heteromorphic long arm of chromosome 1 provides evidence to equate the lampbrush 1A to somatic 1A, and confirms previous reports that lampbrush chromosome 1A is slightly longer than 1B. The XY sex bivalent of neofemales does not show any obvious heteromorphy of recognised marker loops.

A study of meiotic pairing, nondisjunction and germ cell death in laboratory mice carrying Robertsonian translocations

Frequencies of anaphase I nondisjunction, germ cell death and pairing abnormalities at pachytene were assessed in male mice singly heterozygous and homozygous for the Robertsonian (Rb) translocations: Rb (1.3)1Bnr, Rb(11.13)4Bnr and Rb(10.11)8Bnr. Rb homozygotes showed low frequencies of nondisjunction but substantial germ cell death. This germ cell death could not be attributed to problems at pachytene as Rb homozygotes showed no increase in pairing abnormalities over the (C3H/HeH x 101/H)F1 controls. Instead genic factors are involved. Rb heterozygotes showed substantial frequencies of nondisjunction and even greater germ cell death than found in the homozygotes. Pachytene pairing abnormalities were observed and it appears that these, together with genic factors, cause physiological perturbation of meiocytes, thereby promoting germ cell death, with nondisjunction of the trivalent as a sublethal response.

Oogenesis in homozygotes and heterozygotes for Robertsonian chromosomal rearrangements from natural populations of the common shrew, Sorex araneus

Female common shrews in their first pregnancy were collected near Oxford (UK) from the hybrid zone between the Oxford and Hermitage races. These races differ by Robertsonian chromosomal rearrangements and both Robertsonian heterozygotes and homozygotes are found in the zone. The three homozygotes examined in this study had significantly more oocytes than the six heterozygotes. Among the heterozygotes, the number of oocytes tended to be lower in more severely heterozygous individuals; one double heterozygote was particularly depleted. Although there were, on average, 41% fewer primordial follicles in the ovaries of the heterozygotes than those of the homozygotes, there was no significant difference in the numbers of growing follicles between the karyotypic classes. These data suggest that Robertsonian heterozygotes may have a shorter reproductive lifespan than do homozygotes, but the numbers of follicles being recruited for ovulation at a particular instance during the fertile period does not appear to differ between homozygotes and heterozygotes. Morphological differences between the follicles of homozygotes and heterozygotes were not detected. Only 0.12% of healthy growing follicles were biovular.

Male meiosis and gametogenesis in wild house mice (Mus musculus domesticus) from a chromosomal hybrid zone; a comparison between "simple" Robertsonian heterozygotes and homozygotes

Wild male house mice Mus musculus domesticus were collected from the hybrid zone between the John o'Groats race (2n = 32) and the standard race (2n = 40) in northern Scotland. Meiosis in both homozygotes (2n = 32, 36, and 40) and single Robertsonian heterozygotes (2n = 33, 35, and 37) was found to be orderly. At prophase/metaphase I in heterozygotes, a trivalent was formed from the metacentric and two homologous acrocentrics. At pachytene, this trivalent usually had a single side arm at the position of the centromeres, as a result of nonhomologous pairing of the acrocentrics. This side arm persisted into diplotene. Generally only a single chiasma was formed between each acrocentric and the metacentric. Anaphase I nondisjunction frequencies were estimated as 1.5% for the homozygotes and 2.7% for the heterozygotes. The extent of germ cell death between the pachytene and round spermatid stages was 18% greater in heterozygotes than in homozygotes. Our results concur with previous studies which indicate that single Robertsonian heterozygotes in wild house mice have near-normal fertility.

Male common shrews (Sorex araneus) with long meiotic chain configurations can be fertile: implications for chromosomal models of speciation

Two chromosomal races of common shrews (Sorex araneus) were crossed in captivity to generate chain VII-forming complex Robertsonian heterozygotes. Meiosis and gametogenesis were studied in three male hybrids. Regular chain VII configurations were observed at both pachytene and diakinesis/metaphase I, although in many pachytene spreads the chain configuration was incomplete (the basis of this peculiarity is unknown). From metaphase II counts, the frequency of anaphase I nondisjunction in the complex heterozygotes was estimated to be 13%. Germ-cell death in the chain VII-forming complex heterozygotes was 22% greater than it was in controls, but this difference is unlikely to have greatly influenced the capacity of the heterozygotes to sire offspring. Thus, the fecundity of these complex heterozygous common shrews would probably have been only slightly reduced relative to homozygous or simple heterozygous shrews. These results call into question the generality of speciation models based on the presumed sterility of complex heterozygotes.

A new method for studying human oocytes by light and electron microscopy

Since ovarian follicles appear to be randomly oriented with respect to the plane of the section, the method of sectioning and examining follicles at their maximum diameter described here allows direct comparison between oocyte populations of women and small differences can be detected. Re-sectioning for EM allows selected follicles of interest to be examined at a higher resolution.

Meiotic chromosome pairing in the normal human female

The synaptonemal complexes of oocytes from 16-22 week human fetuses were spread using detergent and silver-stained for examination by light microscopy. Zygotene chromosome synapsis generally begins at the telomeres, without obvious prealignment, and proceeds towards the centromeres. Synapsis is not synchronous and longer bivalents may sometimes be completely paired before shorter ones. At pachytene, when pairing is usually complete, some regions presumed to correspond to the heterochromatic blocks of chromosomes 1.9 and 16 may remain unpaired. Residual univalents are uncommon, and little interlocking is evident at this stage. Desynapsis indicating the beginning of diplotene frequently begins at the telomeres, although there is a general relaxation of pairing throughout the bivalents which become increasingly diffuse as diplotene proceeds. The total synaptonemal complex complement length at pachytene in the female is 519 micron, which is about twice that found in the human male. The implications of these results for genetic mapping are discussed.

A method for preparing two-dimensional surface-spreads of synaptonemal complexes from plant meiocytes for light and electron microscopy

A method has been developed for preparing two-dimensional surface spreads of synaptonemal complexes (SCs) from plant meiocytes for examination by light and/or electron microscopy. Clear, well-spread preparations of SCs and unpaired axial cores have been obtained from a range of meiotic prophase I stages (leptotene to pachytene) from Allium and Secale meiocytes.

Triple chromosome synapsis in oocytes from a human foetus with trisomy 21

Oocytes from a human foetus with trisomy 21 were spread using detergent and examined by light and electron microscopy. The three chromosomes 21 occurred as bivalent and univalent or trivalent configurations. In the trivalents the lateral elements of the synaptonemal complex were associated in threes, either completely along the length of the trivalent, or partially, forming a variety of forked structures. This triple association demonstrates that, contrary to the classical view of chromosome pairing, three homologous chromosomes can be held in register at the same site.

Stoichiometric composition of whitlockite

The mineral whitlockite has been described as having CalP ratios of 3:2 and 10:7. This study used the pyrolytic formation of pyrophosphate and whitlockite from calcium orthophosphates and their mixtures with CaCO3 to determine this Ca/ P ratio. Its mean value of 1.506 ± 0.015 indicated a formula of Ca3(PO 4)2.