Adapting a measure of gross motor skills for individuals with CDKL5 deficiency disorder: A psychometric study

PURPOSE

Validated measures capable of demonstrating meaningful interventional change in the CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD) are lacking. The study objective was to modify the Rett Syndrome Gross Motor Scale (RSGMS) and evaluate its psychometric properties for individuals with CDD.

METHODS

Item and scoring categories of the RSGMS were modified. Caregivers registered with the International CDKL5 Clinical Research Network uploaded motor videos filmed at home to a protected server and completed a feedback questionnaire (n = 70). Rasch (n = 137), known groups (n = 109), and intra- and inter-rater reliability analyses (n = 50) were conducted.

RESULTS

The age of individuals with CDD ranged from 1.5 to 34.1 years. The modified scale, Gross Motor-Complex Disability (GM-CD), comprised 17 items. There were no floor or ceiling effects and inter- and intra-rater reliability were good. Rasch analysis demonstrated that the items encompassed a large range of performance difficulty, although there was some item redundancy and some disordered categories. One item, Prone Head Position, was a poor fit. Caregiver-reported acceptability was positive. Scores differed by age and functional abilities.

SUMMARY

GM-CD appears to be a suitable remotely administered measure and psychometrically sound for individuals with CDD. This study provides the foundation to propose the use of GM-CD in CDD clinical trials. Longitudinal evaluation is planned.

Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on youth sport in Australia and consequences for future participation and retention

Background

COVID-19 continues to represent the single biggest challenge to contemporary community sport globally. Compliance with social distancing policies, strict return-to-play protocols, and COVID-19 specific training has, perhaps, forever changed the way that children and young people engage in organised sport. Within this context, and while many children and families seek to re-engage with community sport, we (researchers and sport practitioners) have an obligation to ask questions about how the pandemic has impacted youth sport, understand the short- and long-term consequences, and explore what (if any) opportunities can be seized to assist and improve future participation and retention. The aim of this paper was to present an in-depth exploration of the impact of COVID-19 on youth sport in South Australia.

Methods

Within an interpretive descriptive methodology, this qualitative investigation draws on rich, individual interview and focus group data with 39 youth (ages 15–18), parents, coaches, and sport administrators. A reflexive thematic analysis was undertaken, leading to the development of four substantive themes.

Results

We conceptualised the ‘4 Rs’ to advance theoretical understandings about the pandemic’s impact on youth sport, including the themes ‘recognising struggle’, ‘reconnection’, ‘re-engaging after restrictions, and ‘reimagining sport’. The themes captured insights about a decline in mental wellbeing and physical activity, an increase in family connectedness, the challenge for sports to attract volunteers and participants back into sport, and the opportunities to reset values and philosophies underpinning the provision of youth sport.

Conclusion

The findings provide valuable insight into the youth sport setting as a result of the global pandemic and suggest that families, sporting clubs and sporting organisations require additional resources and tools (for example, support for parents to facilitate their children’s training at home during lockdown) to aid recovery efforts and to ensure the survival and prosperity of youth sport into the future.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-10505-5.

Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on youth sport in Australia and consequences for future participation and retention

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 continues to represent the single biggest challenge to contemporary community sport globally. Compliance with social distancing policies, strict return-to-play protocols, and COVID-19 specific training has, perhaps, forever changed the way that children and young people engage in organised sport. Within this context, and while many children and families seek to re-engage with community sport, we (researchers and sport practitioners) have an obligation to ask questions about how the pandemic has impacted youth sport, understand the short- and long-term consequences, and explore what (if any) opportunities can be seized to assist and improve future participation and retention. The aim of this paper was to present an in-depth exploration of the impact of COVID-19 on youth sport in South Australia.

METHODS

Within an interpretive descriptive methodology, this qualitative investigation draws on rich, individual interview and focus group data with 39 youth (ages 15-18), parents, coaches, and sport administrators. A reflexive thematic analysis was undertaken, leading to the development of four substantive themes.

RESULTS

We conceptualised the '4 Rs' to advance theoretical understandings about the pandemic's impact on youth sport, including the themes 'recognising struggle', 'reconnection', 're-engaging after restrictions, and 'reimagining sport'. The themes captured insights about a decline in mental wellbeing and physical activity, an increase in family connectedness, the challenge for sports to attract volunteers and participants back into sport, and the opportunities to reset values and philosophies underpinning the provision of youth sport.

CONCLUSION

The findings provide valuable insight into the youth sport setting as a result of the global pandemic and suggest that families, sporting clubs and sporting organisations require additional resources and tools (for example, support for parents to facilitate their children's training at home during lockdown) to aid recovery efforts and to ensure the survival and prosperity of youth sport into the future.

Assertive outreach treatment versus care as usual for the treatment of high-need, high-cost alcohol related frequent attenders: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Alcohol-related hospital admissions have doubled in the last ten years to > 1.2 m per year in England. High-need, high-cost (HNHC) alcohol-related frequent attenders (ARFA) are a relatively small subgroup of patients, having multiple admissions or attendances from alcohol during a short time period. This trial aims to test the effectiveness of an assertive outreach treatment (AOT) approach in improving clinical outcomes for ARFA, and reducing resource use in the acute setting.

METHODS

One hundred and sixty ARFA patients will be recruited and following baseline assessment, randomly assigned to AOT plus care as usual (CAU) or CAU alone in equal numbers. Baseline assessment includes alcohol consumption and related problems, physical and mental health comorbidity and health and social care service use in the previous 6 months using standard validated tools, plus a measure of resource use. Follow-up assessments at 6 and 12 months after randomization includes the same tools as baseline plus standard measure of patient satisfaction. Outcomes for CAU + AOT and CAU at 6 and 12 months will be compared, controlling for pre-specified baseline measures. Primary outcome will be percentage of days abstinent at 12 months. Secondary outcomes include emergency department (ED) attendance, number and length of hospital admissions, alcohol consumption, alcohol-related problems, other health service use, mental and physical comorbidity 6 and 12 months post intervention. Health economic analysis will estimate the economic impact of AOT from health, social care and societal perspectives and explore cost-effectiveness in terms of quality adjusted life years and alcohol consumption at 12-month follow-up.

DISCUSSION

AOT models piloted with alcohol dependent patients have demonstrated significant reductions in alcohol consumption and use of unplanned National Health Service (NHS) care, with increased engagement with alcohol treatment services, compared with patients receiving CAU. While AOT interventions are costlier per case than current standard care in the UK, the rationale for targeting HNHC ARFAs is because of their disproportionate contribution to overall alcohol burden on the NHS. No previous studies have evaluated the clinical and cost-effectiveness of AOT for HNHC ARFAs: this randomized controlled trial (RCT) targeting ARFAs across five South London NHS Trusts is the first.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

International standard randomized controlled trial number (ISRCTN) registry: ISRCTN67000214, retrospectively registered 26/11/2016.

Improving screening and brief intervention activities in primary health care: Secondary analysis of professional accuracy based on the AUDIT-C

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

The ODHIN trial found that training and support and financial reimbursement increased the proportion of patients that were screened and given advice for their heavy drinking in primary health care. However, the impact of these strategies on professional accuracy in delivering screening and brief advice is underresearched and is the focus of this paper.

METHOD

From 120 primary health care units (24 in each jurisdiction: Catalonia, England, the Netherlands, Poland, and Sweden), 746 providers participated in the baseline and the 12-week implementation periods. Accuracy was measured in 2 ways: correctness in completing and scoring the screening instrument, AUDIT-C; the proportion of screen-negative patients given advice, and the proportion of screen-positive patients not given advice. Odds ratios of accuracy were calculated for type of profession and for intervention group: training and support, financial reimbursement, and internet-based counselling.

RESULTS

Thirty-two of 36 711 questionnaires were incorrectly completed, and 65 of 29 641 screen-negative patients were falsely classified. At baseline, 27% of screen-negative patients were given advice, and 22.5% screen-positive patients were not given advice. These proportions halved during the 12-week implementation period, unaffected by training. Financial reimbursement reduced the proportion of screen-positive patients not given advice (OR = 0.56; 95% CI, 0.31-0.99; P < .05).

CONCLUSION

Although the use of AUDIT-C as a screening tool was accurate, a considerable proportion of risky drinkers did not receive advice, which was reduced with financial incentives.

Codeine use, dependence and help-seeking behaviour in the UK and Ireland: an online cross-sectional survey

BACKGROUND

Codeine misuse and dependence poses a clinical and public health challenge. However, little is known about dependence and treatment needs in the UK and Ireland.

AIM

To characterize codeine use, dependence and help-seeking behaviour.

DESIGN

An online cross-sectional survey advertised on Facebook, Twitter, health and drug websites and e-mail circulars.

METHODS

The survey collected data on demographics and codeine use amongst adults from the UK and Ireland. The Severity of Dependence Scale measured the level of codeine dependence.

RESULTS

The sample of 316 respondents had a mean age of 35.3 years (SD = 12.3) and 67% were women. Of the 316 respondents, 54 scored ≥5 on the Severity of Dependence Scale indicating codeine dependence (17.1%). Our study found that codeine dependence is a problem with both prescribed and 'over-the-counter' codeine. Codeine dependence was associated with daily use of codeine, faking or exaggerating symptoms to get a prescription for codeine and 'pharmacy shopping' ( P < 0.01). A higher number of respondents had sought advice on the Internet (12%) rather than from their general medical practitioner (GP) (5.4%). Less than 1% of respondents had sought advice from a pharmacist.

CONCLUSIONS

Codeine dependent users were more likely to seek help on the Internet to control their use of codeine than from a GP, which may indicate a potential for greater specialized addiction treatment demand through increased identification and referrals in primary care.

'Who's actually gonna read this?' An evaluation of staff experiences of the value of information contained in written care plans in supporting care in three different dementia care settings

WHAT IS KNOWN ON THE SUBJECT?: A written plan is designed to improve communication and co-ordinate care between mental health inpatient wards and community settings. Reports of care plan quality issues and staff and service user dissatisfaction with healthcare bureaucracy have focused on working age mental health or general hospital settings. Little is known about mental health staff perspectives on the value of written care plans in supporting dementia care. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE?: Competing demands on staff time and resources to meet administrative standards for care plans caused a tension with their own professional priorities for supporting care. Mental health staff face difficulties using electronic records alongside other systems of information sharing. Further exploration is needed of the gap between frontline staff values and those of the local organization and managers when supporting good dementia care. WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE?: Frontline staff should be involved in designing new information systems including care plans. Care plan documentation needs to be refocused to ensure it is effective in enabling staff to communicate amongst themselves and with others to support people with dementia. Practice-based mentors could be deployed to strengthen good practice in effective information sharing.

ABSTRACT

Background Reports of increased healthcare bureaucracy and concerns over care plan quality have emerged from research and surveys into staff and service user experiences. Little is known of mental health staff perspectives on the value of written care plans in supporting dementia care. Aim To investigate the experiences and views of staff in relation to care planning in dementia services in one National Health Service (NHS) provider Trust in England. Method Grounded Theory methodology was used. A purposive sample of 11 multidisciplinary staff were interviewed across three sites in one NHS Trust. Interviews were transcribed, coded and analysed using the constant comparative method. Findings Five themes were identified and are explored in detail below: (1) Repetition; (2) the impact of electronic records on practice; (3) ambivalence about the value of paperwork; (4) time conflicts; and (5) alternative sources of information to plan care. Discussion Participants perceived that written care plans did not help staff with good practice in planning care or to support dementia care generally. Staff were frustrated by repetitive documentation, inflexible electronic records and conflicting demands on their time. Implications for practice Frontline staff should be involved in designing new information systems including care plans.

Electro-responsive polyelectrolyte-coated surfaces

The anchoring of polymer chains at solid surfaces is an efficient way to modify interfacial properties like the stability and rheology of colloidal dispersions, lubrication and biocompatibility. Polyelectrolytes are good candidates for the building of smart materials, as the polyion chain conformation can often be tuned by manipulation of different physico-chemical variables. However, achieving efficient and reversible control of this process represents an important technological challenge. In this regard, the application of an external electrical stimulus on polyelectrolytes seems to be a convenient control strategy, for several reasons. First, it is relatively easy to apply an electric field to the material with adequate spatiotemporal control. In addition, in contrast to chemically induced changes, the molecular response to a changing electric field occurs relatively quickly. If the system is properly designed, this response can then be used to control the magnitude of surface properties. In this work we discuss the effect of an external electric field on the adhesion and lubrication properties of several polyelectrolyte-coated surfaces. The influence of the applied field is investigated at different pH and salt conditions, as the polyelectrolyte conformation is sensitive to these variables. We show that it is possible to fine tune friction and adhesion using relatively low applied fields.

AESOPS: a randomised controlled trial of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of opportunistic screening and stepped care interventions for older hazardous alcohol users in primary care

BACKGROUND

There is clear evidence of the detrimental impact of hazardous alcohol consumption on the physical and mental health of the population. Estimates suggest that hazardous alcohol consumption annually accounts for 150,000 hospital admissions and between 15,000 and 22,000 deaths in the UK. In the older population, hazardous alcohol consumption is associated with a wide range of physical, psychological and social problems. There is evidence of an association between increased alcohol consumption and increased risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension and haemorrhagic and ischaemic stroke, increased rates of alcohol-related liver disease and increased risk of a range of cancers. Alcohol is identified as one of the three main risk factors for falls. Excessive alcohol consumption in older age can also contribute to the onset of dementia and other age-related cognitive deficits and is implicated in one-third of all suicides in the older population.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a stepped care intervention against a minimal intervention in the treatment of older hazardous alcohol users in primary care.

DESIGN

A multicentre, pragmatic, two-armed randomised controlled trial with an economic evaluation.

SETTING

General practices in primary care in England and Scotland between April 2008 and October 2010.

PARTICIPANTS

Adults aged ≥ 55 years scoring ≥ 8 on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (10-item) (AUDIT) were eligible. In total, 529 patients were randomised in the study.

INTERVENTIONS

The minimal intervention group received a 5-minute brief advice intervention with the practice or research nurse involving feedback of the screening results and discussion regarding the health consequences of continued hazardous alcohol consumption. Those in the stepped care arm initially received a 20-minute session of behavioural change counselling, with referral to step 2 (motivational enhancement therapy) and step 3 (local specialist alcohol services) if indicated. Sessions were recorded and rated to ensure treatment fidelity.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome was average drinks per day (ADD) derived from extended AUDIT--Consumption (3-item) (AUDIT-C) at 12 months. Secondary outcomes were AUDIT-C score at 6 and 12 months; alcohol-related problems assessed using the Drinking Problems Index (DPI) at 6 and 12 months; health-related quality of life assessed using the Short Form Questionnaire-12 items (SF-12) at 6 and 12 months; ADD at 6 months; quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) (for cost-utility analysis derived from European Quality of Life-5 Dimensions); and health and social care resource use associated with the two groups.

RESULTS

Both groups reduced alcohol consumption between baseline and 12 months. The difference between groups in log-transformed ADD at 12 months was very small, at 0.025 [95% confidence interval (CI)--0.060 to 0.119], and not statistically significant. At month 6 the stepped care group had a lower ADD, but again the difference was not statistically significant. At months 6 and 12, the stepped care group had a lower DPI score, but this difference was not statistically significant at the 5% level. The stepped care group had a lower SF-12 mental component score and lower physical component score at month 6 and month 12, but these differences were not statistically significant at the 5% level. The overall average cost per patient, taking into account health and social care resource use, was £488 [standard deviation (SD) £826] in the stepped care group and £482 (SD £826) in the minimal intervention group at month 6. The mean QALY gains were slightly greater in the stepped care group than in the minimal intervention group, with a mean difference of 0.0058 (95% CI -0.0018 to 0.0133), generating an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of £1100 per QALY gained. At month 12, participants in the stepped care group incurred fewer costs, with a mean difference of -£194 (95% CI -£585 to £198), and had gained 0.0117 more QALYs (95% CI -0.0084 to 0.0318) than the control group. Therefore, from an economic perspective the minimal intervention was dominated by stepped care but, as would be expected given the effectiveness results, the difference was small and not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Stepped care does not confer an advantage over minimal intervention in terms of reduction in alcohol consumption at 12 months post intervention when compared with a 5-minute brief (minimal) intervention.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This trial is registered as ISRCTN52557360.

FUNDING

This project was funded by the NIHR Health Technology Assessment programme and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 17, No. 25. See the HTA programme website for further project information.

A comparison of intellectual assessments over video conferencing and in-person for individuals with ID: preliminary data

BACKGROUND

Video conferencing (VC) technology has great potential to increase accessibility to healthcare services for those living in rural or underserved communities. Previous studies have had some success in validating a small number of psychological tests for VC administration; however, VC has not been investigated for use with persons with intellectual disabilities (ID). A comparison of test results for two well known and widely used assessment instruments was undertaken to establish if scores for VC administration would differ significantly from in-person assessments.

METHOD

Nineteen individuals with ID aged 23-63 were assessed once in-person and once over VC using the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) and the Beery-Buktenica Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI).

RESULTS

Highly similar results were found for test scores. Full-scale IQ on the WASI and standard scores for the VMI were found to be very stable across the two administration conditions, with a mean difference of less than one IQ point/standard score.

CONCLUSION

Video conferencing administration does not appear to alter test results significantly for overall score on a brief intelligence test or a test of visual-motor integration.

Delamination and renovation of a molecular surfactant-polymer boundary lubricant film

We have studied the behavior under compression and shear of two molecularly smooth mica surfaces immersed in aqueous solutions of a dimeric cationic surfactant and an oppositely charged polyelectrolyte-neutral diblock copolymer by using a surface force apparatus-nanotribometer, SFA-N. The surfactant and copolymer coadsorb as a mix molecular boundary lubricant film on the negatively charged mica surfaces leading to low friction in a sliding mechanical contact. However, under fritting conditions, shearing can induce different dynamic transitions of the confined films. Transitions from the initial low friction steady state to new steady states of low or high friction can be induced when the sliding velocity is increased above certain values. These dynamical transitions occur together with thickness reduction of the confined film. A reverse transition to the low friction steady state accompanied by the renovation of the film can be triggered by reintroducing some matter in the contact, via increasing the amplitude of the fritting cycles.

Reinforcement of a surfactant boundary lubricant film by a hydrophilic-hydrophilic diblock copolymer

The coadsorption from aqueous solutions of an anionic-neutral hydrophilic-hydrophilic diblock copolymer onto a mica-suported surfactant bilayer of a cationic oligomeric surfactant has been investigated. By using an atomic force microscope and a surface forces apparatus nanotribometer, we studied the resulting film morphology, the interactions between two coated surfaces, and the frictional properties of the boundary film. When the coated surfaces were compressed while being fully immersed in an aqueous surfactant solution, the hemifusion of the adsorbed surfactant bilayers could be easily induced. Noticeable friction forces could then be measured between the monolayer-coated surfaces. Coadsorbing poly(acrylic acid)-poly(acrylamide) diblock copolymer with the cationic surfactant changes the cohesion of the adsorbed layers. When the copolymer concentration is sufficiently high, the hemifusion instability of the adsorbed layers can be inhibited, considerably improving its lubricant properties.

Boundary lubricant films under shear: Effect of roughness and adhesion

The normal interaction and the behavior under shear of mica surfaces covered by two different triblock copolymers of polylysine-polydimethysiloxane-polylysine were studied by combining the capabilities of the surface forces apparatus and the atomic force microscopy. At low pH values these copolymers spontaneously adsorb on the negatively charged mica surfaces from aqueous solutions as a consequence of the positive charge of the polylysine moieties. The morphology of the adsorbed layer is determined by the molecular structure of the particular copolymer investigated. This morphology plays a fundamental role on the behavior of the adsorbed layers under shear and compression. While nonadhesive smooth layers oppose an extremely small resistance to sliding, the presence of asperities even at the nanometric scale originates a frictional resistance to the motion. The behavior of uniform nonadhesive nanorough surfaces under shear can be quantitatively understood in terms of a simple multistable thermally activated junction model. The electric charge of the adsorbed copolymer molecules and hence the adhesion energy between the coated surfaces can be modified by varying the pH of the surrounding media. In the presence of an adhesive interaction between the surfaces the behavior under shear is strongly modified. Time-dependent mechanisms of energy dissipation have to be evoked in order to explain the changes observed.

How do general practitioners manage alcohol-misusing patients? Results from a national survey of GPs in England and Wales

The appropriateness of the primary care setting to undertake health promotional activities has been emphasized, but little is known about the clinical work of GPs with patients misusing alcohol. This study examines how GPs managed alcohol-misusing patients. A 20% random sample of all general practitioners in England and Wales were surveyed using a postal questionnaire. A 44% response rate was achieved. GPs reported managing different levels of severity of drinking problems differently. Basic interventions, such as reporting the alcohol misuse diagnosis and the provision of advice and information, were routine. Health promotion leaflets were not used uniformly, even with the less severe problem drinkers. Detoxification, prescribing of drugs and the management of medical complications were undertaken mainly with dependent patients. Dependent drinkers were the most likely group to be referred to specialist services, while internal practice referrals occurred with all drinking status categories. Anti-depressants were the drugs most usually prescribed to alcohol-misusing patients. The data point to a need for basic guidelines, not only on how to manage and refer dependent drinkers, but also on how to detect and manage those who are not yet manifesting problems but are drinking above recommended guidelines. One of the most evident areas in which there appears to be a need for guidelines is that of prescribing within primary care.

Low detection rates, negative attitudes and the failure to meet the "Health of the Nation" alcohol targets: findings from a national survey of GPs in England and Wales

The appropriateness of the primary care setting to undertake the health promotional activities needed to meet 'Health of the Nation' alcohol targets has been acknowledged in UK government policy and the scientific literature. However, the latest data suggest these targets are not being met. A 20% random sample of all general practitioners in England and Wales were surveyed by postal questionnaire to examine their work in detecting alcohol misuse and their attitudes towards the work. Four mailing waves produced a 44% response rate. GPs had identified a mean of 3.2 patients per month drinking above recommended 'sensible' guidelines. These patients were mostly male (73%) and above 40 years of age (45%), with nearly half (45%) already dependent drinkers. Most GPs perceived alcohol misuse patients as a difficult group with whom to work. None the less, over half the respondents believed general practice was an appropriate setting for the detection of the problem. However, most did not feel trained or supported in this area of their work. More emphasis needs to be placed on the valuable contribution GPs can make with the larger number of patients who are drinking regularly above 'sensible' levels but not yet suffering adverse affects. Our findings point towards not an unwilling profession, but a profession lacking confidence. The provision of support and basic training are major factors in how GPs perceive alcohol misusers and their own role in this work. Twenty years after the Maudsley Alcohol Pilot Project research it is disappointing that, despite greater recognition by GPs of their potential impact, lack of training and lack of support are still so central to their continued low levels of therapeutic commitment.

Surfactant boundary lubricant film modified by an amphiphilic diblock copolymer

The effect of the uptake of a low-molecular-weight amphiphilic diblock copolymer on the morphology of didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) adsorbed layers on mica, the interactions between two coated surfaces, and the frictional properties of the boundary film have been studied using an atomic force microscope and a dynamic surface forces apparatus nanotribometer. When DDAB-coated surfaces in aqueous solution were compressed, hemifusion or removal of the adsorbed surfactant bilayers could not be induced, and no frictional force could be measured between the surfaces, which display superior lateral cohesion and lubricant properties. Coadsorbing octadecyl end modified poly(ethylene oxide) chains at low density facilitates hemifusion, generating significant shear stress and leading to stick-slip instabilities. The mixed films regain their lateral cohesion at higher adsorbed copolymer densities, but an extra short-range attraction brings the adsorbed layers into adhesive contact without causing bilayer hemifusion. Here, noticeable frictional forces are also measured.

Behavior of adhesive boundary lubricated surfaces under shear: effect of grafted diblock copolymers

The shear behavior and the normal interaction between mica surfaces covered by surfactant or surfactant-polymer mixtures were studied with a Surface Forces Apparatus (SFA) nanotribometer. If the surfaces are compressed while fully immersed in an aqueous surfactant solution that adsorbs in the form of flat bilayers, hemifusion can be induced. When the hemifused surfaces are subject to shear, at least five different dynamic regimes can be recognized. The general behavior may be described by a model based on the kinetics of formation and rupture of adhesive bonds between the shearing surfaces, with an additional viscous term. Once the adsorbed surfactant layer is decorated with physigrafted copolymers, the number of sliding regimes may be reduced to only one, in which the shear stress increases sublinearly with the driving velocity. The adhesion energy and the resistance to hemifusion of the adsorbed surfactant-polymer layers are also strongly modified as the grafting density increases.

Friction between two weakly adhering boundary lubricated surfaces in water

The sliding of adhesive surfactant-bearing surfaces was studied with a surface forces apparatus nanotribometer. When the surfaces are fully immersed in an aqueous solution, the dynamic behavior is drastically different and more varied than under dry conditions. In solution, the shear stress exhibits at least five different velocity regimes. In particular, the sliding may proceed by an "inverted" stick-slip over a large range of driving velocities, this regime being bounded by smooth (kinetic) sliding at both lower and higher driving velocities. The general behavior of the system was studied in detail, i.e., over a large range of experimental conditions, and theoretically accounted for in terms of a general model based on the kinetics of formation and rupture of adhesive links (bonds) between the two shearing surfaces with an additional viscous term.

Accelerating Reinforcement Learning by Composing Solutions of Automatically Identified Subtasks

This paper discusses a system that accelerates reinforcement learning by using transfer from related tasks. Without such transfer, even if two tasks are very similar at some abstract level, an extensive re-learning effort is required. The system achieves much of its power by transferring parts of previously learned solutions rather than a single complete solution. The system exploits strong features in the multi-dimensional function produced by reinforcement learning in solving a particular task. These features are stable and easy to recognize early in the learning process. They generate a partitioning of the state space and thus the function. The partition is represented as a graph. This is used to index and compose functions stored in a case base to form a close approximation to the solution of the new task. Experiments demonstrate that function composition often produces more than an order of magnitude increase in learning rate compared to a basic reinforcement learning algorithm.

Sarcoidosis with prominent giant cells

A 31-year-old man presented with a widespread papular eruption and systemic symptoms including renal colic and decreased exercise tolerance. The combination of clinical features and laboratory investigations that revealed an elevated angiotensin converting enzyme level and hypercalcaemia enabled a diagnosis of sarcoidosis to be made. Multiple skin biopsies showed prominent Touton-like giant cells which delayed the diagnosis. Giant cells are frequently seen in sarcoidal granulomas but in some cases their prominence and Touton-like appearance may suggest alternative diagnoses such as xanthogranulomas.

Dynamic phase transitions in confined lubricant fluids under shear

A surface force apparatus was used to measure the transient and steady-state friction forces between molecularly smooth mica surfaces confining thin films of squalane, C30H62, a saturated, branched hydrocarbon liquid. The dynamic friction "phase diagram" was determined under different shearing conditions, especially the transitions between stick-slip and smooth sliding "states" that exhibited a chaotic stick-slip regime. The apparently very different friction traces exhibited by simple spherical, linear, and branched hydrocarbon films under shear are shown to be due to the much longer relaxation times and characteristic length scales associated with transitions from rest to steady-state sliding, and vice versa, in the case of branched liquids. The physical reasons and tribological implications for the different types of transitions observed with spherical, linear, and branched fluids are discussed.

Are practice nurses an unexplored resource in the identification and management of alcohol misuse? Results from a study of practice nurses in England and Wales in 1995

Changes in the health promotional work undertaken in primary care, including the work needed to meet the 'Health of the Nation' alcohol targets, have led to a rapid expansion of the number of practice nurses in England and Wales. However, there has been little evaluation of this role. This study provides data, for the first time at a national level, about practice nurses' work in identifying and managing patients drinking above recommended sensible guidelines. Data were collected by postal questionnaire from all nurses in a 50% random sample of 1852 practices (drawn from a general practitioner (GP) national study, undertaken at the same time). 43% of nurses responded from 62% of the targeted practices. Respondents reported identifying a mean of 3.1 patients per month who were drinking above recommended sensible guidelines. These patients tended to be male, above 40 years of age and in contact with the nurse for the first time about this problem. Most patients were categorized as having a potential alcohol problem; few were classified as currently dependent. Very little intervention work was undertaken by nurses except for referral to the GP. If real progress is to be made in meeting the 'Health of the Nation' targets on population alcohol consumption, then primary care work in identifying alcohol misusing patients needs to be developed as a matter of urgency. The patients identified by practice nurses are those patients relevant to the 'Health of the Nation' alcohol targets. More emphasis needs to be placed on the valuable contribution practice nurses can make, particularly through the use of screening instruments and brief interventions.

The effect of cash and other financial inducements on the response rate of general practitioners in a national postal study

BACKGROUND

Low response rates are acknowledged as a potential source of bias in survey results. Response rates are a particular problem in surveys of GPs. Thus, the methods used to encourage response to mailed surveys and the influence of inducements in maximizing response rates are fundamental issues to be examined when addressing the problem of response bias.

AIM

To increase the overall response rate to a national study of GPs and to explore the effects of financial and non-financial inducements on response rates.

METHODS

Two mailing waves of a postal questionnaire to a 20% random sample of all GPs in England and Wales had achieved a 33% response rate. For the third mailing wave, the non-responding GPs were then divided into a control group, a group who were offered a donation to charity to complete the questionnaire and a group who were offered cash. The charity and cash groups were further subdivided into 5 pounds and 10 pounds groups to assess the effect of the size of the inducement offered. For the control group, a fourth wave was sent the offer of a 5 pounds or 10 pounds incentive.

RESULTS

Response was positively affected by the offer of an inducement. Cash, however, had a more substantial effect than the offer of a donation to charity. Older GPs were less likely to participate overall, whereas male GPs were more likely to respond to a cash inducement. Doctors who had seen more patients were less likely to reply earlier and were more likely to respond to the offer of cash.

CONCLUSIONS

Primary care is going through many changes, some of which have increased the workload of the GP. It may now be that, to achieve the response rates needed to validate policy-related research, the offer of inducements will become a necessary part of the research process.

Surveying general practitioners: does a low response rate matter?

BACKGROUND

Primary care has long been of interest to policy research. Recently, there is evidence to suggest that it is becoming more difficult to encourage GPs (general practitioners) to participate in surveys. As low response rates can introduce bias into survey results, it is important to study the effects of non-response.

AIM

To assess the validity of a response rate of 44% obtained in a national postal study of GPs surveyed about their work with alcohol-misusing patients by assessing the extent of any non-response bias.

METHOD

A telephone survey of 148 GPs who had not responded to repeated mailings of a postal questionnaire was undertaken. In addition to personal and practice structure characteristics, the GPs were asked three questions taken from the original questionnaire about their work with alcohol-misusing patients.

RESULTS

Of the 148 GPs telephoned, 64 responded to the telephone questionnaire in full; all had previously failed to respond to the postal questionnaire. Younger GPs were more likely to respond to both the national postal and telephone surveys, but more so to the latter. Telephone responders were more likely to be GPs in a single-handed practice. The work of GPs with alcohol-misusing patients highlighted differences between the two response groups. Male telephone responders were found to be identifying a significantly higher average of alcohol misusers than male postal responders. Telephone responders were more likely to feel trained in treating alcohol misuse and to feel better supported to deal with this patient group.

CONCLUSION

Some significant differences were identified, indicating the presence of non-response bias. A low response rate need not affect the validity of the data collected, but it is still necessary to test for non-response effects and make corrections to the original data in order to maximize validity.

Alcohol as an unconditioned stimulus in human classical conditioning

Recent experiments with human subjects have shown that drug cues (e.g. sight of beer or needle and syringe) elicit different responses than do neutral stimuli. However, because conditioning has not been carried out in the majority of cases, it is not clear why drug cues have different response eliciting capacities; associative and nonassociative mechanisms may both play a part. In this experiment a counterbalanced differential conditioning procedure was used to isolate the role of associative processes in the development of physiological, behavioural, and subjective conditioned responses to cues for alcohol over the course of repeated conditioning sessions. Twelve healthy volunteers took part in the experiment which involved each subject attending for ten sessions. On physiological measures evidence was found for conditioning of skin conductance and cardiac inter-beat interval responses to cues for alcohol delivery. Over the course of conditioning on behavioural measures of drink consumption there were changes in the rate of consumption and number of sips taken as a function of whether or not the drinks contained alcohol. Finally, on subjective measures, there was a differential change in subjective state in response to alcohol and soft drink expectancy as conditioning progressed.

Medical and psychiatric needs of adults with a mental handicap

This study describes the assessment of the medical and psychiatric needs of adults with a mental handicap recently resettled in community facilities including 'staffed houses'. No statistically significant differences were found for behaviour problems and psychiatric diagnosis prior to resettlement and one year after. However, increased use of primary care and expert psychiatric service were found following the resettlement. Clinical and service issues in relation to successful maintenance of people with mental handicap in the community are discussed.

The use of services for alcohol problems: general practitioner and specialist alcohol clinic

A sample of 40 patients referred to a specialist alcohol clinic were given a full assessment by a clinician and then randomly allocated to one of two groups. The first group received continuing care from the clinic. The second group were returned to the management of their general practitioners who were offered specialist support in caring for their patients. Patients and general practitioners were followed-up 6 months after the clinic assessment. This paper reports on the uptake of clinic and general practice services by patients and examines the possible factors associated with continuing attendance, including patient attributes, service activity, patients' self-assessments of their drink problem and their expectations of help from services. Qualitative data is used to examine patients' perceptions and experiences of clinic and general practice-based care for drinking problems. The findings highlight some of the difficulties reported by patients in receiving help for their problems particularly from general practitioners.

Engaging patients with alcohol problems in treatment: the first consultation

This paper considers the impact of the first consultation at a specialist alcohol clinic on patients' perceptions of their drink problem and on their expectations of help from three sources: an alcohol clinic, general practitioners and Alcoholics Anonymous. At intake, males had higher expectations than females of help from the alcohol clinic while people in manual occupations and those in the 'less heavy' drinking category had higher expectations of general practitioner help than other patients. Change was found to occur during the first clinic consultation so that by the end of the session patients had raised their rating of problem severity and their expectations of help from the three sources examined. Overall, patient perceptions of the clinic assessment session were positive. The study highlights the importance of obtaining a full understanding of the process of engagement in treatment and indicates the potential of a clinical assessment to effect change in patient attitudes.

Alcohol consumption, problem drinking and anti-social behaviour in a sample of college students

A total of 125 male and 145 female students completed a written questionnaire (response rate 68%) on their consumption levels and patterns, problem drinking and vandalism and assaults associated with drinking, Prevalence of heavy drinking was broadly similar to that found in other college student samples in the UK with 25.6% of male students and 14.5% of female students drinking more than their safe limits of 35 and 21 units per week respectively. Six percent of male and one percent of female students exceeded the problem drinking threshold on the MAST. Twenty percent of the male students and 6% of the females admitted having caused at least some damage to property after having been drinking in the past 12 months. Four percent of males and 5% of females admitted 'minor' assaults. Fifty percent of males and 36% of females had witnessed damage to property and 19% of males and 10% of females had experienced some kind of assault. Vandalism and assaults were positively and independently associated with higher levels of consumption, reasons for drinking and patterns of drinking; in particular morning drinking appeared to play a role. Taking amount of drinking into account, males were more likely to commit acts of vandalism but females were more likely to commit assaults. The results reveal that alcohol-related, anti-social behaviour among students is a significant problem and that, while heavy drinking per se plays a role, other factors are also important.