Toward Redox-Free Reverse Electrodialysis with Carbon-Based Slurry Electrodes

Clean and renewable salinity gradient energy can be harvested using reverse electrodialysis (RED). The electrode system is an essential part to convert ionic current into electrical current. In this study, a typical 0.10 × 0.10 m2 RED stack with a cross-flow configuration was used to test carbon-based slurry electrodes (CSEs) to replace the usual redox solutions, like hexacyanoferrate, to enhance the RED process' sustainability, stability, and economic value. Six different slurry compositions comprising activated carbon, carbon black, and graphite powder were tested. The CSE characteristics were systematically studied by measuring viscosity, electrode compartment pressure drop, maximum current density, stability, and performance of power density and energy efficiency. Using a single membrane configuration, the CSE ran continuously for 17 days with a stable output. The application of CSEs for RED, with artificial seawater and river water, using mixing activated carbon and carbon black at a total concentration of 20 wt %, resulted in the best performance with a net power density of 0.7 W·m-2. Moreover, higher current densities up to 350 A·m-2 were tested for ED and shown to be feasible until 150 A·m-2. CSEs show promising versatility for different application modes.

Development of an international Core Outcome Set (COS) for best care for the dying person: study protocol

BACKGROUND

In contrast to typical measures employed to assess outcomes in healthcare such as mortality or recovery rates, it is difficult to define which specific outcomes of care are the most important in caring for dying individuals. Despite a variety of tools employed to assess different dimensions of palliative care, there is no consensus on a set of core outcomes to be measured in the last days of life. In order to optimise decision making in clinical practice and comparability of interventional studies, we aim to identify and propose a set of core outcomes for the care of the dying person.

METHODS

Following the COMET initiative approach, the proposed study will proceed through four stages to develop a set of core outcomes: In stage 1, a systematic review of the literature will identify outcomes measured in existing peer reviewed literature, as well as outcomes derived through qualitative studies. Grey literature, will also be included. Stage 2 will allow for the identification and determination of patient and proxy defined outcomes of care at the end of life via quantitative and qualitative methods at an international level. In stage 3, from a list of salient outcomes identified through stages 1 and 2, international experts, family members, patients, and patient advocates will be asked to score the importance of the preselected outcomes through a Delphi process. Stage 4 consists of a face-to-face consensus meeting of international experts and patient/family representatives in order to define, endorse, and propose the final Core Outcomes Set.

DISCUSSION

Core Outcome Sets aim at promoting uniform assessment of care outcomes in clinical practice as well as research. If consistently employed, a robust set of core outcomes for the end of life, and specifically for the dying phase, defined by relevant stakeholders, can ultimately be translated into best care for the dying person. Patient care will be improved by allowing clinicians to choose effective and meaningful treatments, and research impact will be improved by employing internationally agreed clinically relevant endpoints and enabling accurate comparison between studies in systematic reviews and/or in meta-analyses.

Comparing the quality of life of adults with and without intellectual disability

BACKGROUND

Quality of life (QOL) is an important issue for all citizens, comprising equity, equality, inclusion and participation of each person in society. The research purposes driving this investigation were (1) to compare QOL among people with and without intellectual disability (ID) and (2) to examine the predictors of QOL in both groups of participants.

METHODS

Data were collected from 1929 adults, including 1264 individuals with an ID and the remainder (n = 665) were participants without a disability. QOL was assessed by the Portuguese version of the Personal Outcomes Scale.

RESULTS

The findings supported significantly higher QOL for adults without ID. Furthermore, QOL is influenced by individual and environmental variables, stressing that the health status was the highest mutual predictor of QOL among those with and without ID.

CONCLUSION

The gaps among both groups of participants should be addressed in service provision and policies. Taking into account the research findings, the personalised supports should enable the full inclusion and participation of adults with ID in community-based settings.

Microbial Contaminants of Cord Blood Units Identified by 16S rRNA Sequencing and by API Test System, and Antibiotic Sensitivity Profiling

Over a period of ten months a total of 5618 cord blood units (CBU) were screened for microbial contamination under routine conditions. The antibiotic resistance profile for all isolates was also examined using ATB strips. The detection rate for culture positive units was 7.5%, corresponding to 422 samples.16S rRNA sequence analysis and identification with API test system were used to identify the culturable aerobic, microaerophilic and anaerobic bacteria from CBUs. From these samples we recovered 485 isolates (84 operational taxonomic units, OTUs) assigned to the classes Bacteroidia, Actinobacteria, Clostridia, Bacilli, Betaproteobacteria and primarily to the Gammaproteobacteria. Sixty-nine OTUs, corresponding to 447 isolates, showed 16S rRNA sequence similarities above 99.0% with known cultured bacteria. However, 14 OTUs had 16S rRNA sequence similarities between 95 and 99% in support of genus level identification and one OTU with 16S rRNA sequence similarity of 90.3% supporting a family level identification only. The phenotypic identification formed 29 OTUs that could be identified to the species level and 9 OTUs that could be identified to the genus level by API test system. We failed to obtain identification for 14 OTUs, while 32 OTUs comprised organisms producing mixed identifications. Forty-two OTUs covered species not included in the API system databases. The API test system Rapid ID 32 Strep and Rapid ID 32 E showed the highest proportion of identifications to the species level, the lowest ratio of unidentified results and the highest agreement to the results of 16S rRNA assignments. Isolates affiliated to the Bacilli and Bacteroidia showed the highest antibiotic multi-resistance indices and microorganisms of the Clostridia displayed the most antibiotic sensitive phenotypes.

Alterations in phospholipidomic profile in the brain of mouse model of depression induced by chronic unpredictable stress

Depression is a worldwide disability disease associated with high morbidity and has increased dramatically in the last few years. The differential diagnosis and the definition of an individualized therapy for depression are hampered by the absence of specific biomarkers. The aim of this study was to evaluate the phospholipidomic profile of the brain and myocardium in a mouse model of depression induced by chronic unpredictable stress (CUS). The lipidomic profile was evaluated by thin layer and liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry and lipid oxidation was estimated by FOX II assay. Antioxidant enzyme activity and the oxidized/reduced glutathione (GSH/GSSG) ratio were also evaluated. Results showed that chronic stress affects primarily the lipid profile of the brain, inducing an increase in lipid hydroperoxides, which was not detected in the myocardium. A significant decrease in phosphatidylinositol (PI) and in cardiolipin (CL) relative contents and also oxidation of CL and a significant increase of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) were observed in the brain of mice after unpredictable chronic stress conditions. In the myocardium only an increase in PC content was observed. Nevertheless, both organs present a decreased GSH/GSSG ratio when compared to control groups, corroborating the occurrence of oxidative stress. The enzyme activities of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were found to be decreased in the myocardium and increased in the brain, while glutathione reductase (GR) was decreased in the brain. Our results indicate that in a mouse model for studying depression induced by CUS, the modification of the expression of oxidative stress-related enzymes did not prevent lipid oxidation in organs, particularly in the brain. These observations suggest that depression has an impact on the brain lipidome and that further studies are needed to better understand lipids role in depression and to evaluate their potential as future biomarkers.

One year of Lamivudine therapy for portuguese patients with chronic hepatitis B

OBJECTIVE

To assess the efficacy of lamivudine treatment on hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) and/or hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) seroconversion, on other virological and serological markers of response including hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA and serum aminotransferases, and the safety of lamivudine treatment in hepatitis B patients.

PATIENTS

This phase III open-label study evaluated the virological and biochemical response to lamivudine in 70 Portuguese patients with HBeAg positive chronic hepatitis B. Patients were treated with lamivudine 100mg once daily for 12 months.

METHODS

Antiviral activity was assessed by measuring alanine aminotransferase (ALT)/aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels at all protocol visits, and hepatitis B serology and HBV DNA were performed at baseline and at month 12 visits. Evaluation of safety and tolerance was based on clinical adverse events and laboratory analyses.

RESULTS

The primary endpoint was virological response at month 12, defined as loss of detectable HBeAg from serum with a reduction of HBV DNA to undetectable levels, and this was observed in 19/69 (27.5%) of patients. Almost half of the patients were HBV DNA negative by this time. Mean ALT values decreased steadily during treatment and by 12 months 61% of patients had values within the normal range. HBeAg seroconversion (HBeAg negative, HBeAb positive) was achieved in 27.9% of patients by 12 months, although all patients remained HBsAg positive.

CONCLUSION

Lamivudine was well tolerated and the incidence of adverse events was similar to those reported in previous studies. Lamivudine treatment resulted in virological and biochemical improvements in HBeAg positive chronic hepatitis B patients, with HBeAg seroconversion in one-third of patients.

The currently used commercial DNA-extraction methods give different results of clostridial and actinobacterial populations derived from human fecal samples

Recently several human health-related microbiota studies have had partly contradictory results. As some differences may be explained by methodologies applied, we evaluated how different storage conditions and commonly used DNA-extraction kits affect bacterial composition, diversity, and numbers of human fecal microbiota. According to our results, the DNA-extraction did not affect the diversity, composition, or quantity of Bacteroides spp., whereas after a week's storage at -20 °C, the numbers of Bacteroides spp. were 1.6-2.5 log units lower (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the numbers of predominant bacteria, Eubacterium rectale (Erec)-group, Clostridium leptum group, bifidobacteria, and Atopobium group were 0.5-4 log units higher (P < 0.05) after mechanical DNA-extraction as detected with qPCR, regardless of storage. Furthermore, the bacterial composition of Erec-group differed significantly after different DNA-extractions; after enzymatic DNA-extraction, the most prevalent genera detected were Roseburia (39% of clones) and Coprococcus (10%), whereas after mechanical DNA-extraction, the most prevalent genera were Blautia (30%), Coprococcus (13%), and Dorea (10%). According to our results, rigorous mechanical lysis enables detection of higher bacterial numbers and diversity from human fecal samples. As it was shown that the results of clostridial and actinobacterial populations are highly dependent on the DNA-extraction methods applied, the use of different DNA-extraction protocols may explain the contradictory results previously obtained.

Expression of clpL1 and clpL2 genes in Lactobacillus rhamnosus VTT E-97800 after exposure to acid and heat stress treatments or to freeze-drying

The aim of the study was to evaluate the potential of utilising the information on expression levels of selected stress genes in assessing the quality of probiotic products. For this purpose RT-qPCR methods were developed to study the expression of clpL1 and clpL2 stress genes in Lactobacillus rhamnosus VTT E-97800 (E800) cells after exposure to processing-related stress conditions or to freeze-drying. Heat treatments in laboratory scale were performed with E800 cells incubated at 47 °C or 50 °C for 60 min. Acid treatments were performed both at laboratory and fermenter scale. At laboratory scale E800 cells were inoculated into General Edible Medium (GEM) adjusted to pH 4.0 and pH 3.5 and incubated at 37 °C for 180 min, whereas fermenter-grown cells were exposed to pH 4.0 for 60 min at the end of the fermentation. RNA from fresh cells and freeze-dried powders was reverse transcribed after isolation, quantification and standardisation. clpL1 and clpL2 transcripts were analysed by RT-qPCR with SYBR Green I. clpL1 was induced in L. rhamnosus E800 cells exposed to 50 °C and to a much lesser extent to 47 °C. No induction was observed for clpL2 in E800 cells during either acid or heat treatment, in any of the conditions applied. RNA isolation from freeze-dried powders was unsuccessful although several attempts were made with high quality products. In conclusion, our results suggest that developing quality indicators for probiotic products based on differences in the expression of stress genes is a challenging task for several reasons: at least with some genes (like in the present study with clpL) quite harsh conditions are needed to detect differences in the gene expression; mRNA isolation from freeze-dried powders was unsuccessful which hampers the quality analysis of large proportion of probiotic products; and furthermore RT-qPCR proved to be a too laborious procedure for routine use.

Comparative study of Curiementor ionization chambers using Monte Carlo simulations

Ionization chambers (ICs) are the most commonly used instrument for measuring activities of solutions containing radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine, due to their simplicity of operation and accurate measurement results. As the dose delivered to the patient is determined by these measurements, for optimal results, the activity of these radiopharmaceuticals must be determined as accurately as possible, so that the radioprotection requirements are accomplished and at the same time good therapy or imaging results are achieved. In this work, the response of the ionization chamber Curiementor 2, from PTW-Freiburg, was studied by simulation with Monte Carlo (MC) code MCNPX and compared with experimental results for several radionuclides. The good agreement between experimental and simulation results validates the used methodology. The energy dependent sensitivity function, S (E), was established. Several ionization chambers were studied for (18)F and (99m)Tc, through Monte Carlo simulation method. In particular, some alterations to the original design of the Curiementor 2 were analysed, as well as the geometry of more recent chambers developed by PTW, namely Curiementor 3 and PET Curiementor 4. Calibration coefficients were compared for sources at different positions. Importance volumes were defined and determined for the Curiementors 2 and 3 and its ratio related with the corresponding ratio of sensitivity functions.

Alcohol use and abuse in adolescence: proposal of an alternative analysis

BACKGROUND

A national, representative, school-based sample of Portuguese youths was used to examine the prevalence of alcohol use in this population and to analyse differences between demographic variables such as gender and age, as well as to propose a statistical procedure that optimally quantifies categorical variables.

METHODS

Data on 6109 state school students from Portugal, in the 6th, 8th and 10th grades, aged 11-18, who participated in the 2002 (Health Behaviour in School-aged Children/WHO) survey of adolescent health, were analysed. Adolescents aged between 11 and 14 were placed in the younger group, and those 15-18 years old were placed in the older group. Optimal scaling was used to optimize the computation of factor scores, which were subsequently submitted to multiple regression analysis in order to analyse the impact of gender and age on alcohol use.

RESULTS

The results of this study show that the majority of Portuguese school-aged adolescents attending regular school at 6th, 8th and 10th grades do not drink alcoholic beverages (beer, wine or spirits) on a regular basis (at least once a month). However, about 8% of these adolescents do drink beer, 3% do drink wine and 12% do drink spirits on a regular basis. With regard to age and gender, about a quarter of the older boys stated that they drink beer or spirits regularly. The multiple regression analysis showed that age and gender had a significant impact on alcohol use.

CONCLUSION

Alcohol - in particular spirits - is a substance used by some Portuguese adolescents. Alcohol use and abuse is more frequent in boys and increases with age. The importance of these findings for health promotion strategies is discussed.

Mannosylglycerate is essential for osmotic adjustment in Thermus thermophilus strains HB27 and RQ-1

We disrupted the mpgS encoding mannosyl-3-phosphoglycerate synthase (MpgS) of Thermus thermophilus strains HB27 and RQ-1, by homologous recombination, to assess the role of the compatible solute mannosylglycerate (MG) in osmoadaptation of the mutants, to examine their ability to grow in NaCl-containing medium and to identify the intracellular organic solutes. Strain HB27 accumulated only MG when grown in defined medium containing 2% NaCl; mutant HB27M9 did not grow in the same medium containing more than 1% NaCl. When trehalose or MG was added, the mutant was able to grow up to 2% of NaCl and accumulated trehalose or MG, respectively, plus amino acids. T. thermophilus RQ-1 grew in medium containing up to 5% NaCl, accumulated trehalose and lower amounts of MG. Mutant RQ-1M1 lost the ability to grow in medium containing more than 3% NaCl and accumulated trehalose and moderate levels of amino acids. Exogenous MG did not improve the ability of the organism to grow above 3% NaCl, but caused a decrease in the levels of amino acids. Our results show that MG serves as a compatible solute primarily during osmoadaptation at low levels of NaCl while trehalose is primarily involved in osmoadaptation during growth at higher NaCl levels.

Organic solutes in Rubrobacter xylanophilus: the first example of di-myo-inositol-phosphate in a thermophile

The thermophilic and halotolerant nature of Rubrobacter xylanophilus led us to investigate the accumulation of compatible solutes in this member of the deepest lineage of the Phylum Actinobacteria. Trehalose and mannosylglycerate (MG) were the major compounds accumulated under all conditions examined, including those for optimal growth. The addition of NaCl to a complex medium and a defined medium had a slight or negligible effect on the accumulation of these compatible solutes. Glycine betaine, di-myo-inositol-phosphate (DIP), a new phosphodiester compound, identified as di-N-acetyl-glucosamine phosphate and glutamate were also detected but in low or trace levels. DIP was always present, except at the highest salinity examined (5% NaCl) and at the lowest temperature tested (43 degrees C). Nevertheless, the levels of DIP increased with the growth temperature. This is the first report of MG and DIP in an actinobacterium and includes the identification of the new solute di-N-acetyl-glucosamine phosphate.

Distribution of genes for synthesis of trehalose and Mannosylglycerate in Thermus spp. and direct correlation of these genes with halotolerance

In this study we correlate the presence of genes leading to the synthesis of trehalose and mannosylglycerate (MG) in 17 strains of the genus Thermus with the ability of the strains to grow and accumulate these compatible solutes in a defined medium containing NaCl. The two sets of genes, namely, otsA/otsB for the synthesis of trehalose and mpgS/mpgP for the synthesis of MG, were necessary for the growth of Thermus thermophilus in a defined medium containing up to 6% NaCl. Strains lacking a complete otsA gene did not grow in defined medium containing >2% NaCl. One strain of T. thermophilus lacking the genes for the synthesis of MG did not grow in a medium with >1% NaCl. We did not identify any of these genes in the type strains of the other seven species of Thermus, and none of those strains grew in defined medium with 1% NaCl. The results strongly indicate that the combined accumulation of trehalose and MG is required for optimal osmotic adjustment.

Truepera radiovictrixgen. nov., sp. nov., a new radiation resistant species and the proposal ofTrueperaceaefam. nov

Two isolates, belonging to a new species of a novel genus of the Phylum "Deinococcus/Thermus ", were recovered from hot spring runoffs on the Island of São Miguel in the Azores. Strains RQ-24(T) and TU-8 are the first cultured representatives of a distinct phylogenetic lineage within this phylum. These strains form orange/red colonies, spherical-shaped cells, have an optimum growth temperature of about 50 degrees C, an optimum pH for growth between about 7.5 and 9.5, and do not grow at pH below 6.5 or above pH 11.2. These organisms grow in complex media without added NaCl, but have a maximum growth rate in media with 1.0% NaCl and grow in media containing up to 6.0% NaCl. The organisms are extremely ionizing radiation resistant; 60% of the cells survive 5.0 kGy. These strains are chemoorganotrophic and aerobic; do not grow in Thermus medium under anaerobic conditions with or without nitrate as electron acceptor and glucose as a source of carbon and energy, but ferment glucose to D-lactate without formation of gas. The organisms assimilate a large variety of sugars, organic acids and amino acids. Fatty acids are predominantly iso- and anteiso-branched; long chain 1,2 diols were also found in low relative proportions; menaquinone 8 (MK-8) is the primary respiratory quinone. Peptidoglycan was not detected. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, physiological, biochemical and chemical analysis we describe a new species of one novel genus represented by strain RQ-24(T) (CIP 108686(T)=LMG 22925(T)=DSM 17093(T)) for which we propose the name Truepera radiovictrix. We also propose the family Trueperaceae fam. nov. to accommodate this new genus.

Cortical activation associated with passive movements of the human index finger: an MEG study

We recorded somatosensory evoked fields to passive extensions of the left and right index fingers in eight healthy adults. A new nonmagnetic device was designed to produce calibrated extensions of 19 degrees, with a mean angular velocity of 630 degrees/s. The responses, recorded with a 306-channel neuromagnetometer, were modeled with current dipoles. The earliest activation was in the primary somatosensory cortex, with peaks at 36-58 and 30-82 ms for left and right index finger extensions, respectively. Later signals were observed in the left second somatosensory (SII) cortex in six of eight subjects at 75-175 and 75-155 ms for left- and right-sided extensions, respectively; three subjects showed bilateral SII activation in at least one condition. Our results suggest a predominant role for the human left SII cortex in proprioceptive processing.

Magnetoencephalographic correlates of audiotactile interaction

To seek for correlates of an interaction between auditory and somatosensory processing, the brain's magnetic field in response to simultaneously presented auditory (A) and tactile (T) stimuli was compared with the sum of the respective unimodal responses (A+T). The stimuli were binaural 1047-Hz tone bursts of 60 dB sensation level and tactile pressure pulses to the right thumb. The mean interval between two stimuli of the same modality was 1.95 s. The magnetic field was recorded using a 306-channel whole-scalp neuromagnetometer. A clear audiotactile interaction was revealed in the hemisphere contralateral to the side of tactile stimulation in six of eight subjects, whereas in the ipsilateral hemisphere an interaction was noticed in only three subjects. The time courses of these audiotactile interaction fields typically showed major deflections of opposite polarities around 140 and 220 ms. The first deflection appeared to arise in the region of the secondary somatosensory cortex (SII). The polarity of this interaction was consistent with the view that the auditory stimulus resulted in a partial inhibition in SII. In two subjects, strong indications of auditory contributions to the interaction were available, although in different hemispheres. The relatively high interindividual variability of the observed interaction, which represents potential neural substrates for multisensory integration, could indicate that the way subjects perceive the simultaneous presentation of auditory and tactile stimuli differs.

Functional overlap of finger representations in human SI and SII cortices

We aimed to find out to what extent functional representations of different fingers of the two hands overlap at the human primary and secondary somatosensory cortices SI and SII. Somatosensory evoked fields (SEFs) were recorded with a 306-channel neuromagnetometer from 8 subjects. Tactile stimuli, produced by diaphragms driven by compressed air, were delivered to the fingertips in three different conditions. First, the right index finger was stimulated once every 2 s. Then two other stimuli were interspersed, in different sessions, to right- or left-hand fingers (thumb, middle finger, or ring finger) between the successive right index finger stimuli. Strengths of the responses to right index finger stimuli were evaluated in each condition. Responses to right index finger stimuli were modeled by three current dipoles, located at the contralateral SI and the SII cortices of both hemispheres. The earliest SI responses, peaking around 65 ms, were suppressed by 18% (P < 0.05) when the intervening stimuli were presented to the same hand; intervening stimuli to the other hand had no effect. The SII responses were bilaterally suppressed by intervening stimuli presented to either hand: in the left SII, the suppression was 39 and 42% (P < 0.01) and in the right SII 67 and 72% (P < 0.001) during left- and right-sided intervening stimuli, respectively. Left- and right-sided intervening stimuli affected similarly the SII responses and had no effect on the response latencies. The results indicate a strong and symmetric overlap of finger representations for both hands in the human SII cortices, and a weaker functional overlap for fingers of the same hand in the SI cortex.

Effects of L-NA and sodium nitroprusside on ischemia/reperfusion-induced leukocyte adhesion and macromolecular leakage in hamster cheek pouch venules

Our objective was to study how the topical application of a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor (l-NA, Nomega-nitro-L-arginine) and a nitric oxide donor, sodium nitroprusside (SNP), could modulate leukocyte adhesion (sticking) and microvascular permeability as altered by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) and topically applied histamine after I/R. Golden hamsters were prepared for intravital microscopy. Ischemia was induced by an inflatable silicon rubber cuff mounted around the neck of the cheek pouch prepared for intravital microscopy. Saline, L-NA, sodium nitroprusside, and histamine were applied in the superfusion solution. FITC-dextran was injected iv 30 min before initiation of ischemia as a marker of microvascular permeability. L-NA 10(-5) M inhibited both the increase in number of sticking leukocytes and the increase in vascular permeability after I/R compared with the untreated control group of hamsters. SNP neutralized this effect of L-NA on leukocytes and vascular permeability and caused arteriolar dilation at the concentration used, 10(-6) M. Both SNP and L-NA + SNP enhanced the I/R-induced macromolecular leakage. The topical application of SNP and SNP + L-NA did not modify the response to histamine after I/R compared with the untreated control group. In hamsters not subjected to I/R, histamine-induced macromolecular leakage was inhibited by L-NA and L-NA + SNP but was unchanged by SNP. It is concluded that inhibition of nitric oxide formation by L-NA reduced both leukocyte adhesion in postcapillary venules and the increase in macromolecular leakage and that a NO donor such as SNP could enhance the macromolecular leakage response to I/R.

Gender differences in Brazilian street youth's family circumstances and experiences on the street

OBJECTIVES

It has been proposed that homeless street girls are more likely to be from dysfunctional families and exhibit psychological distress than homeless street boys, reflecting cultural factors that result in differential norms for male and female behavior. The current analysis examined whether male and female street youth in a mid-sized Brazilian city differed in their family circumstances and day-to-day functioning on the street.

METHODS

The opportunity sample consisted of 33 male (mean age 14.3, range 10-17 years) and 33 female (mean age 14.6, range 11-18 years) street youth who participated in a sentence completion task and structured interview examining family experiences and ability to meet daily needs on the street.

RESULTS

Consistent with the cultural hypothesis, girls described more negative family backgrounds than boys (e.g., they were more likely to have left home because of conflict or abuse, and reported more negative relationships with their parents). However, girls' functioning on the street was similar to, and in some cases more positive than, that of boys (e.g., fewer girls reported police violence and begging to earn money).

CONCLUSIONS

The few gender differences that emerged in this study offer little support for the cultural hypothesis. The findings make sense if local factors, such as services available for male and female youth and public response to street youth, are considered. It appears that street youth differ in their experiences depending on local circumstances, highlighting the need for caution in generalizing about the situation of street youth in different countries.

Expansions of CD8+CD28- and CD8+TcRVbeta5.2+ T cells in peripheral blood of heavy alcohol drinkers

BACKGROUND

Despite heavy alcohol consumption, only a low percentage of heavy drinkers develop liver disease. Imbalances in T-cell subsets and iron metabolism parameters are common findings in heavy drinkers, yet the possible role played by discrete T-lymphocyte subsets under heavy alcohol consumption remains unclear.

METHODS

To gain new insights into the possible role played by T lymphocytes during alcohol consumption, characterization of CD28 expression and TcR repertoire in peripheral blood CD4+ and CD8+ T cells by two and three-color flow cytometry was performed. A group of heavy alcohol drinkers (AHD, n = 71) and a group of age-matched controls (n = 81), both HLA-phenotyped and HFE-genotyped, constituted the groups under study.

RESULTS

Marked expansions of CD28- T cells within the CD8+ but not the CD4+ T-cell pool were observed in AHD compared with controls. These CD8+CD28- expansions were paralleled by expansions of CD8+ T cells bearing specific TcR Valpha/beta chains, namely VP5.2. Moreover, AHD, but not controls, carrying the H63D mutation in the HFE gene showed significantly higher percentages of CD28- T cells within the CD8+ T-cell pool than AHD carrying the normal HFE gene. Finally, high numbers of CD8+CD28- T cells in AHD were associated with lower levels of the liver-related enzymes ALT and GGT.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that under active ethanol consumption, expansions of discrete CD8+ T-cell subsets occur within the CD8+ T-cell pool, that molecules of the MHC-class I locus seem to influence the extent of the expansions, and that high numbers of CD8+CD28- T cells are associated with low levels of liver enzymes in AHD.

Differential effects of muscle contraction from various body parts on neuromagnetic somatosensory responses

We studied eight healthy subjects with a whole-scalp 306-channel neuromagnetometer to explore the effect of motor activity from different body parts on somatosensory responses to left median nerve stimulation. The stimuli produced clear tactile sensation without any motor movement. In the rest condition, the subject had no task. During contraction conditions, the subject had to maintain submaximal isometric contraction in masseter, left deltoid, left thenar, or left tibialis muscles. Short-latency responses from the primary somatosensory cortex did not change during contraction. Responses from both the right (contralateral) and left second somatosensory cortices (SII) were significantly enhanced during contraction of the left thenar muscles. Responses from the left SII were significantly enhanced also during contraction of the left deltoid muscles, but they were decreased during contraction of the masseter and left tibialis anterior muscles. This study implies that SII activation is modulated by motor activity and that the effect depends on the topographical proximity of the stimulated and contracted body parts.

Relationship between responses to contra- and ipsilateral stimuli in the human second somatosensory cortex SII

We studied the interaction between responses to contra- and ipsilateral stimuli in the human second somatosensory cortex SII by recording somatosensory evoked magnetic fields (SEFs) from 8 healthy subjects with a 122-channel whole-scalp SQUID magnetometer. Right (R) and left (L) median nerves were electrically stimulated at the wrists at intensities exceeding the motor threshold. In each stimulus sequence, the four equiprobable pairs (L-L, R-R, L-R, R-L) were presented in a random order once every 2 s, with a 300-ms interstimulus interval within the pair. The responses were modelled with a four-dipole model, with current dipoles located in the SI and SII cortices of both hemispheres. The SII responses peaked around 85-120 ms and responses to the 1st (2nd) stimulus on the pair were on average 2 (12) ms earlier and about 3 (2.5) times stronger for contralateral than ipsilateral stimuli. Independently of the condition, the 2nd response always peaked later than the 1st; the mean delay was 16 ms. The responses to the 2nd stimulus depended only slightly on the type of the 1st: the latency increased more and the amplitude decreased less after different than identical 1st stimuli. These results suggest that neuronal activations due to contra- and ipsilateral stimuli overlap strongly in the human SII cortex.

Unexpected pattern of beta-globin mutations in beta-thalassaemia patients from northern Portugal

We characterized the genetic nature of beta-thalassaemia in northern Portugal. Of the 164 patients studied three were beta-thalassaemia major cases (one IVS-1-6/beta degrees 39 and two homozygous IVS-1-110). The analysis of the frequency of each mutation in the families revealed that the codon 6(-A) mutation was unexpectedly frequent (40%) and associated with the beta-globin haplotype E, and not with the usual European and North African CD6(-A) haplotypes. In contrast, the frequency of IVS-1-6 (8%) and beta degrees 39 (19%) was found to be lower than in the rest of the country. The frequency of all other mutations was similar to previous reports for central/southern Portugal. Six families carried none of the most frequent mutations in the Mediterranean area. These families were studied by gene sequencing, revealing that three families carried a previously described mutation (CD16 G --> A). The remaining families carried previously unidentified mutations: one showed an 86 bp insertion in exon 2 (named HGSA) and two showed a deletion of a cytidine in codon 11 (CD11(-C)). The results, showing a high frequency (82%) of beta degrees mutations, strongly indicates that genetic counselling should be intensified as a means of preventing the spread of the severe mutations found.

[League against pain: an experiment in extracurricular teaching]

Although anatomical and physiological base of pain are subject of the basic sciences in health undergraduate curriculum, it is not usually to have pain concepts and therapy into undergraduate programs. Describing the League Against Pain objectives and organization and the students' opinions about their participation in this league were the aim of this study. The League Against Pain Statute was consulted to describe its objectives and organization. The opinions of all of the students that attended the League Against Pain program in 1995 and 1996 were investigated. The League Against Pain was organized at an university hospital in 1995. It is composed by nurses and medical students and professionals (physicians in varied specialties and nurses). All the activities are voluntary and the students are the managers of the League. The objectives of the League are: improving the quality of teaching of pain subjects in nursing and medical schools; developing research in epidemiological, clinical and therapeutics aspects of pain and to promote a model of multidisciplinary and multiprofessional assistance. The most frequent students' opinions about their participation in the League were: their abilities in pain control and in professional and client relationship were improved; they achieved their objectives; that pain should be included into undergraduate courses; and they would recommend the League for other students. The results are promising. The students' opinions about their experience in the League Against Pain have showed that the League Against Pain could be an usefull model to introduce pain subjects to undergraduate nursing and medical students.

[League against pain: a teaching experience]

The anatomical and physiological basis of pain are subjects of the basic sciences in health sciences undergraduate curriculum. Disciplines focussing pain concepts and pain therapy are not traditional in the medical and nursing schools programs. The description of the organization of the League Against Pain and the presentation the students' opinions about their participation in this educational program were the objectives of the study. The League is composed by nursing and medical students and professionals (physicians of many specialties and nurses). The objectives of the League are: the improvement of the teaching about pain subjects in the nursing and medical schools; the development of research in epidemiological, clinical and therapeutic aspects of pain; the development and promotion of a model of multidisciplinary and multiprofessional assistance to chronic pain patients. The students considered had improved their abilities in pain control and in professional-patients relationship; usefulness and satisfaction with the program; need for inclusion of the program in the undergraduate courses and that the League is a good model for teaching of medical and nursing students in pain.

[An outline of a conceptual framework for nursing]

The taxonomy of the functions of the nurse is an attempt at the systematization of an aspect of nursing knowledge. The taxonomy consist of six classes (groups) with their corresponding categories which illustrate the performance of nurses in their field.