Sea surface microplastics in the Galapagos: Grab samples reveal high concentrations of particles <200 μm in size

Plastic pollution in the oceans is increasing, yet most global sea surface data is collected using plankton nets which limits our knowledge of the smaller and more bioaccessible size fraction of microplastics (<5 mm). We sampled the biodiverse coastal waters of the Galapagos Island of San Cristobal, comparing two different microplastic sampling methodologies; 1 l whole seawater grab samples filtered to 1.2 μm and sea surface plankton tows with a net mesh size of 200 μm. Our data reveal high concentrations of microplastics in Galapagos coastal waters surrounding the urban area, averaging 11.5 ± 1.48 particles l-1, with a four-order of magnitude increase in microplastic abundance observed using grab sampling compared with 200 μm plankton nets. This increase was greater when including anthropogenic cellulose particles, averaging 19.8 ± 1.86 particles l-1. Microplastic and anthropogenic cellulose particles smaller than 200 μm comprised 44 % of the particles from grab samples, suggesting previous estimates of microplastic pollution based on plankton nets likely miss and therefore underestimate these smaller particles. The particle characteristics and distribution of these smaller particles points strongly to a local input of cellulosic fibres in addition to the microplastic particles transported longer distances via the Humbolt current found across the surface seawater of the Galapagos. Improving our understanding of particle characteristics and distributions to highlight likely local sources will facilitate the development of local mitigation and management plans to reduce the input and impacts of microplastics to marine species, not just in the Galapagos but globally.

Marine turtles as bio-indicators of plastic pollution in the eastern Mediterranean

The loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) has been suggested as a bio-indicator species for plastic pollution. However, detailed investigations in the eastern Mediterranean are limited. Here, we present data from loggerhead turtles (2012-2022; n = 131) of which 42.7 % (n = 57) had ingested macroplastic (pieces ≥ 5 mm). Frequency of occurrence (%) was not found to have changed over time, with body size (CCL cm), between stranded or bycaught turtles, or with levels of digesta present. The characteristics of ingested plastic (n = 492) were largely sheetlike (62 %), clear (41 %) or white (25 %) and the most common polymers identified were Polypropylene (37 %) and Polyethylene (35 %). Strong selectivity was displayed towards certain types, colours and shapes. Data are also presented for posthatchling turtles (n = 4), an understudied life stage. Much larger sample sizes will be needed for this species to be an effective bio-indicator, with the consideration of monitoring green turtles (Chelonia mydas) for the eastern Mediterranean recommended allowing a more holistic picture to be gathered.

Using citizen science to understand floating plastic debris distribution and abundance: A case study from the North Cornish coast (United Kingdom)

Citizen science is now commonly employed to collect data on plastic pollution and is recognised as a valuable tool for furthering our understanding of the issue. Few studies, however, use citizen science to gather information on water-borne plastic debris. Here, citizen scientists adopted a globally standardised methodology to sample the sea-surface for small (1-5 mm) floating plastic debris off the Cornish coast (UK). Twenty-eight trawls were conducted along five routes, intersecting two Marine Protected Areas. Of the 509 putative plastic items, fragments were most common (64 %), then line (19 %), foam (7 %), film (6 %), and pellets (4 %). Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy identified the most common polymer type as polyethylene (31 %), then nylon (12 %), polypropylene (8 %), polyamide (5 %) and polystyrene (3 %). This study provides the first globally comparative baseline of floating plastic debris for the region (mean: 8512 items km-2), whilst contributing to an international dataset aimed at understanding plastic abundance and distribution worldwide.

Environmental safety of second and third generation bioplastics in the context of the circular economy

Bioplastics derived from organic materials other than crude oil are often suggested as sustainable solutions for tackling end-of-life plastic waste, but little is known of their ecotoxicity to aquatic species. Here, we investigated the ecotoxicity of second and third generation bioplastics toward the freshwater zooplankton Daphnia magna. In acute toxicity tests (48 h), survival was impacted at high concentrations (g.L^-1 range), within the range of salinity-induced toxicity. Macroalgae-derived bioplastic induced hormetic responses under chronic exposure (21 d). Most biological traits were enhanced from 0.06 to 0.25 g.L^-1 (reproduction rate, body length, width, apical spine, protein concentration), while most of these traits returned to controls level at 0.5 g.L^-1. Phenol-oxidase activity, indicative of immune function, was enhanced only at the lowest concentration (0.06 g.L^-1). We hypothesise these suggested health benefits were due to assimilation of carbon derived from the macroalgae-based bioplastic as food. Polymer identity was confirmed by infra-red spectroscopy. Chemical analysis of each bioplastic revealed low metal abundance whilst non target exploration of organic compounds revealed trace amounts of phthalates and flame retardants. The macroalgae-bioplastic disintegrated completely in compost and biodegraded up to 86 % in aqueous medium. All bioplastics acidified the test medium. In conclusion, the tested bioplastics were classified as environmentally safe. Nonetheless, a reasonable end-of-life management of these safer-by-design materials is advised to ensure the absence of harmful effects at high concentrations, depending on the receiving environment.

Plastic contamination of a Galapagos Island (Ecuador) and the relative risks to native marine species

Ecuador's Galapagos Islands and their unique biodiversity are a global conservation priority. We explored the presence, composition and environmental drivers of plastic contamination across the marine ecosystem at an island scale, investigated uptake in marine invertebrates and designed a systematic priority scoring analysis to identify the most vulnerable vertebrate species. Beach contamination varied by site (macroplastic 0-0.66 items·m^-2, microplastics 0-448.8 particles·m^-2 or 0-74.6 particles·kg^-1), with high plastic accumulation on east-facing beaches that are influenced by the Humboldt Current. Local littering and waste management leakages accounted for just 2% of macroplastic. Microplastics (including anthropogenic cellulosics) were ubiquitous but in low concentrations in benthic sediments (6.7-86.7 particles·kg^-1) and surface seawater (0.04-0.89 particles·m^-3), with elevated concentrations in the harbour suggesting some local input. Microplastics were present in all seven marine invertebrate species examined, found in 52% of individuals (n = 123) confirming uptake of microplastics in the Galapagos marine food web. Priority scoring analysis combining species distribution information, IUCN Red List conservation status and literature evidence of harm from entanglement and ingestion of plastics in similar species identified 27 marine vertebrates in need of urgent, targeted monitoring and mitigation including pinnipeds, seabirds, turtles and sharks.

The influence of depositional environment on the abundance of microplastic pollution on beaches in the Bristol Channel, UK

Microplastic is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant, but large gaps still exist in our knowledge of its distribution. We conducted a detailed assessment of the extent and variability of microplastic pollution in the Bristol Channel, UK. Sand samples were collected between the 5th and 30th August 2017, with microplastic recovered from 15 of the 16 beaches sampled along a coastal extent of ~230 km. In total, 1446 particles of suspected microplastic were extracted using a cascade of sieves and visual identification. The most common microplastics recovered were fragments (74%) and industrial plastic pellets (13%). We used Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to analyse 25% of recovered particles, 96.5% of which were confirmed as plastic, with polyethylene (61%) and polypropylene (26%) the most common polymers. Our analysis of local beach environments indicates microplastic burdens were higher on lower energy beaches with finer sediments, highlighting the importance of depositional environment in determining microplastic abundance.

Riverine plastic pollution from fisheries: Insights from the Ganges River system

Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear represents a substantial proportion of global marine plastic pollution and can cause significant environmental and socio-economic impacts. Yet little is known about its presence in, and implications for, freshwater ecosystems or its downstream contribution to plastic pollution in the ocean. This study documents fishing gear-related debris in one of the world's largest plastic pollution contributing river catchments, the Ganges. Riverbank surveys conducted along the length of the river, from the coast in Bangladesh to the Himalaya in India, show that derelict fishing gear density increases with proximity to the sea. Fishing nets were the main gear type by volume and all samples examined for polymer type were plastic. Illegal gear types and restricted net mesh sizes were also recorded. Socio-economic surveys of fisher communities explored the behavioural drivers of plastic waste input from one of the world's largest inland fisheries and revealed short gear lifespans and high turnover rates, lack of appropriate end-of-life gear disposal methods and ineffective fisheries regulations. A biodiversity threat assessment identified the air-breathing aquatic vertebrate species most at risk of entanglement in, and impacts from, derelict fishing gear; namely species of threatened freshwater turtle and otter, and the endangered Ganges river dolphin. This research demonstrates a need for targeted and practical interventions to limit the input of fisheries-related plastic pollution to this major river system and ultimately, the global ocean. The approach used in this study could be replicated to examine the inputs, socio-economic drivers and ecological impacts of this previously uncharacterised but important source of plastic pollution in other major rivers worldwide.

Current radiological situation in areas of Ukraine contaminated by the Chornobyl accident: Part 2. Strontium-90 transfer to culinary grains and forest woods from soils of Ivankiv district

Some of the highest ⁹⁰Sr activity concentrations recorded beyond the Chornobyl Exclusion Zone occur in the Ivankiv district of Ukraine, located approximately 50 km south of the power plant, an area which nonetheless remains important for agricultural production. Although characterized by soils with low exchangeable calcium values, which can enhance the bioavailability of certain radionuclides, information on the transfer of ⁹⁰Sr to food crops and trees in the region has remained limited to date. Analysis of 116 grain samples (wheat, rye, oat, barley or Triticale) collected from fields in 13 settlements in the region between 2011 and 2019 revealed ⁹⁰Sr and ¹³⁷Cs activity concentrations above Ukrainian limits in almost half of those samples, with annual averages exceeding this limit in four of those nine years (most recently in 2018) and with no clear evidence for a declining trend over time. Analysis of paired sandy soil samples from the same fields yielded concentration ratios for transfer of ⁹⁰Sr from soils to grains that were on average 3 times higher than that specified by the IAEA. In addition, three quarters of wood samples collected from the trunks of trees (primarily pines) from 12 locations in the same district between 2015 and 2019 contained ⁹⁰Sr activity concentrations in excess of the Ukrainian limits for firewood (60 Bq/kg), with levels more than four times that limit at one location and again no evidence for decline over time. A single sample of ash collected from a domestic wood-burning oven in the district contained ⁹⁰Sr at a level 25 times higher than in the most contaminated wood sample collected in this study. Overall these results reveal additional facets of the ongoing legacy of Chornobyl contamination within the Ivankiv district, and the diversity of pathways by which local residents may be exposed to radionuclides. They also highlight the dangers associated with the current lack of routine and comprehensive environmental and food monitoring programs within the region, especially at a time in which the use of locally-sourced wood for biomass energy generation is set to expand markedly.

The role of ecosystems in mitigation and management of Covid-19 and other zoonoses

There is rising international concern about the zoonotic origins of many global pandemics. Increasing human-animal interactions are perceived as driving factors in pathogen transfer, emphasising the close relationships between human, animal and environmental health. Contemporary livelihood and market patterns tend to degrade ecosystems and their services, driving a cycle of degradation in increasingly tightly linked socio-ecological systems. This contributes to reductions in the natural regulating capacities of ecosystem services to limit disease transfer from animals to humans. It also undermines natural resource availability, compromising measures such as washing and sanitation that may be key to managing subsequent human-to-human disease transmission. Human activities driving this degrading cycle tend to convert beneficial ecosystem services into disservices, exacerbating risks related to zoonotic diseases. Conversely, measures to protect or restore ecosystems constitute investment in foundational capital, enhancing their capacities to provide for greater human security and opportunity. We use the DPSIR (Drivers-Pressures-State change-Impact-Response) framework to explore three aspects of zoonotic diseases: (1) the significance of disease regulation ecosystem services and their degradation in the emergence of Covid-19 and other zoonotic diseases; and of the protection of natural resources as mitigating contributions to both (2) regulating human-to-human disease transfer; and (3) treatment of disease outbreaks. From this analysis, we identify a set of appropriate response options, recognising the foundational roles of ecosystems and the services they provide in risk management. Zoonotic disease risks are ultimately interlinked with biodiversity crises and water insecurity. The need to respond to the Covid-19 pandemic ongoing at the time of writing creates an opportunity for systemic policy change, placing scientific knowledge of the value and services of ecosystems at the heart of societal concerns as a key foundation for a more secure future. Rapid political responses and unprecedented economic stimuli reacting to the pandemic demonstrate that systemic change is achievable at scale and pace, and is also therefore transferrable to other existential, global-scale threats including climate change and the 'biodiversity crisis'. This also highlights the need for concerted global action, and is also consistent with the duties, and ultimately the self-interests, of developed, donor nations.

Investigating the presence of microplastics in demersal sharks of the North-East Atlantic

Microplastic pollution is ubiquitous in the marine environment and is ingested by numerous marine species. Sharks are an understudied group regarding their susceptibility to microplastic ingestion. Here, we provide evidence of ingestion of microplastic and other anthropogenic fibres in four demersal sharks species found in the waters of the United Kingdom and investigate whether body burdens of contamination vary according to species, sex or size. Sharks were collected from the North-East Atlantic. Stomachs and digestive tracts of 46 sharks of 4 species were examined and 67% of samples contained at least one contaminant particle. Although we acknowledge modest sample size, estimated particle burden increased with body size but did not vary systematically with sex or species. A total of 379 particles were identified, leading to median estimates ranging from 2 to 7.5 ingested contaminants per animal for the 4 species. The majority were fibrous in nature (95%) and blue (88%) or black (9%) in colour. A subsample of contaminants (N = 62) were subject to FT-IR spectroscopy and polymers identified as: synthetic cellulose (33.3%), polypropylene (25%), polyacrylamides (10%) and polyester (8.3%). The level of risk posed to shark species by this level of contamination is unknown. Nevertheless, this study presents the first empirical evidence and an important baseline for ingestion of microplastics and other anthropogenic fibres in native UK shark species and highlights the pervasive nature of these pollutants.

Food web transfer of plastics to an apex riverine predator

As a rapidly accelerating expression of global change, plastics now occur extensively in freshwater ecosystems, yet there is barely any evidence of their transfer through food webs. Following previous observations that plastics occur widely in their prey, we used a field study of free-living Eurasian dippers (Cinclus cinclus), to test the hypotheses that (1) plastics are transferred from prey to predators in rivers, (2) plastics contained in prey are transferred by adults to altricial offspring during provisioning and (3) plastic concentrations in faecal and regurgitated pellets from dippers increase with urbanization. Plastic occurred in 50% of regurgitates (n = 74) and 45% of faecal samples (n = 92) collected non-invasively from adult and nestling dippers at 15 sites across South Wales (UK). Over 95% of particles were fibres, and concentrations in samples increased with urban land cover. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy identified multiple polymers, including polyester, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride and vinyl chloride copolymers. Although characterized by uncertainty, steady-state models using energetic data along with plastic concentration in prey and excreta suggest that around 200 plastic particles are ingested daily by dippers, but also excreted at rates that suggest transitory throughput. As some of the first evidence revealing that plastic is now being transferred through freshwater food webs, and between adult passerines and their offspring, these data emphasize the need to appraise the potential ecotoxicological consequences of increasing plastic pollution.

Particle characteristics of microplastics contaminating the mussel Mytilus edulis and their surrounding environments

We investigated the environmental partitioning and particle characteristics of macro-, meso- and microplastics and their uptake into the mussel, Mytilus edulis. Sediment samples, overlying seawater and mussels from 9 intertidal locations in the South West of England were analysed for abundance and type of microplastic. Micro- and mesoplastic-like particles were found in 88.5% of the 269 mussels sampled, ranging from 1.43 to 7.64 items per mussel. Of these plastic particles, 70.9% were identified as semi-synthetic (mainly modified-cellulose). Mussel microplastic abundance, but not polymer type, was correlated with that of their surrounding sediment, but not with sea-surface microplastic concentration or mussel size for our study sites. We found significant differences in the relative abundance of polymer types and particle sizes between seawater, sediment, and mussels, with mussels over-representing modified-cellulose fibre abundance but under-representing polyvinyl. Mussels contained significantly smaller plastic fragments than their surrounding sediment and shorter fibres than their overlying seawater.

Screening of pesticides and veterinary drugs in small streams in the European Union by liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry

Water samples from 29 small waterways located in 10 different countries in the European Union were screened for the presence of a large number of pesticides (275) and veterinary drugs (101). Solid phase extraction was combined with liquid chromatography coupled to Orbitrap high resolution tandem mass spectrometry to quantify the levels of pesticides in the samples and to detect the presence of veterinary drugs. All the sampled European rivers and canals included in this investigation were contaminated with mixtures of pesticides and, in most of the cases, with several veterinary drugs at the time of sampling, without a clear national or regional pattern. In total, 103 different pesticides, 24 of them banned in the EU, and 21 veterinary drugs were found in the analysed samples. Herbicides were the main contributor to the total amount of pesticides found in the samples, with terbuthylazine present in all the samples. The maximum individual concentration recorded was of dimethenamid at 59.85 μg L^-1. The maximum combined pesticide concentration was found in a sample from the Wulfdambeek canal, Belgium, with 94.02 μg L^-1 comprised of a mixture of 70 different pesticides. European regulatory standards defining acceptable concentration levels were exceeded for at least one pesticide in 13 of the 29 samples analysed, with the neonicotinoid insecticides imidacloprid and clothianidin most frequently present above such limits. The majority of the veterinary drugs detected were antimicrobials, most being antibiotics. The β-lactam antibiotic dicloxacillin was present in two thirds of the analysed samples. The application of this consistent research approach across Europe allowed the identification of a significant threat to the aquatic environment associated with pesticide contamination, and in some cases veterinary drugs, at the time of sampling in the water bodies tested.

Microplastic ingestion ubiquitous in marine turtles

Despite concerns regarding the environmental impacts of microplastics, knowledge of the incidence and levels of synthetic particles in large marine vertebrates is lacking. Here, we utilize an optimized enzymatic digestion methodology, previously developed for zooplankton, to explore whether synthetic particles could be isolated from marine turtle ingesta. We report the presence of synthetic particles in every turtle subjected to investigation (n = 102) which included individuals from all seven species of marine turtle, sampled from three ocean basins (Atlantic [ATL]: n = 30, four species; Mediterranean (MED): n = 56, two species; Pacific (PAC): n = 16, five species). Most particles (n = 811) were fibres (ATL: 77.1% MED: 85.3% PAC: 64.8%) with blue and black being the dominant colours. In lesser quantities were fragments (ATL: 22.9%: MED: 14.7% PAC: 20.2%) and microbeads (4.8%; PAC only; to our knowledge the first isolation of microbeads from marine megavertebrates). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) of a subsample of particles (n = 169) showed a range of synthetic materials such as elastomers (MED: 61.2%; PAC: 3.4%), thermoplastics (ATL: 36.8%: MED: 20.7% PAC: 27.7%) and synthetic regenerated cellulosic fibres (SRCF; ATL: 63.2%: MED: 5.8% PAC: 68.9%). Synthetic particles being isolated from species occupying different trophic levels suggest the possibility of multiple ingestion pathways. These include exposure from polluted seawater and sediments and/or additional trophic transfer from contaminated prey/forage items. We assess the likelihood that microplastic ingestion presents a significant conservation problem at current levels compared to other anthropogenic threats.

Current radiological situation in areas of Ukraine contaminated by the Chernobyl accident: Part 1. Human dietary exposure to Caesium-137 and possible mitigation measures

This study reports for the first time temporal trends for the period of 2011-2016 in ¹³⁷Cs content in cow's milk originating from private farms and households of 14 settlements located in the territories of the Rivne region, Ukraine. These areas are still radioactively contaminated as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (ChNPP) in 1986. In 2016, the average ¹³⁷Cs activity concentration in milk exceeded the Ukrainian Permissible Level (PL) for adults of 100 Bq/l in samples from 6 settlements and the PL for children of 40 Bq/l in 8 settlements, reaching activity concentration of around 500 Bq/l in some samples. Estimated annual effective doses calculated utilizing two different methodologies were in the range of 1.4-2.6 mSv/year and 1.2-1.8 mSv/year, respectively. The estimated effective period of milk semi-purification (T_1/2__eff) from ¹³⁷Cs in these settlements was in the range from 8 to 17 years. The estimated ecological period of milk semi-purification (T_1/2__eco) from ¹³⁷Cs was in the range from 11 to 36 years. The optimization of the remedial actions strategy for investigated settlements exposed to an effective dose above 1 mSv/year (as estimated in 2016) has shown that a diversity of measures can decrease effective dose for a representative person to below 1 mSv/year. Such measures include application of Ferrocyn to cows, mineral fertilization of potato fields, information campaigns on consumption of wild mushrooms and other forestry products, and feeding pigs with uncontaminated fodder. The total costs of such measures are estimated to be about 71,000 Euro per year for the combined population (8336 inhabitants) of the six villages investigated in this study that showed the highest median residual ¹³⁷Cs activity concentrations in milk, with a subsequent decrease in cost in the future. This would result in an averted collective dose of 11 man-Sv, at an average cost of 6.5 kEuro/man-Sv averted. In the absence of governmental programs for implementation of necessary protective measures to reduce radiological risks to impacted populations, the exceedance of PL for the activity concentration of ¹³⁷Cs in cow's milk for adults of 100 Bq/l in the Chernobyl-affected areas of Ukraine could persist for many more years - until at least 2040.

Marine litter plastics and microplastics and their toxic chemicals components: the need for urgent preventive measures

Persistent plastics, with an estimated lifetime for degradation of hundreds of years in marine conditions, can break up into micro- and nanoplastics over shorter timescales, thus facilitating their uptake by marine biota throughout the food chain. These polymers may contain chemical additives and contaminants, including some known endocrine disruptors that may be harmful at extremely low concentrations for marine biota, thus posing potential risks to marine ecosystems, biodiversity and food availability. Although there is still need to carry out focused scientific research to fill the knowledge gaps about the impacts of plastic litter in the marine environment (Wagner et al. in Environ Sci Eur 26:9, 2014), the food chain and human health, existing scientific evidence and concerns are already sufficient to support actions by the scientific, industry, policy and civil society communities to curb the ongoing flow of plastics and the toxic chemicals they contain into the marine environment. Without immediate strong preventive measures, the environmental impacts and the economic costs are set only to become worse, even in the short term. Continued increases in plastic production and consumption, combined with wasteful uses, inefficient waste collection infrastructures and insufficient waste management facilities, especially in developing countries, mean that even achieving already established objectives for reductions in marine litter remains a huge challenge, and one unlikely to be met without a fundamental rethink of the ways in which we consume plastics. This document was prepared by a working group of Regional Centres of the Stockholm and Basel Conventions and related colleagues intended to be a background document for discussion in the 2017 Conference of the Parties (COP) of the Basel Convention on hazardous wastes and the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The COP finally approved that the issue of plastic waste could be dealt by its Regional Centres and consistently report their activities on the matter to next COP's meetings.

Microplastics as contaminants in commercially important seafood species

The ingestion of microplastic fragments, spheres, and fibers by marine mollusks, crustaceans, and fish, including a number of commercially important species, appears to be a widespread and pervasive phenomenon. Evidence is also growing for direct impacts of microplastic ingestion on physiology, reproductive success and survival of exposed marine organisms, and transfer through food webs, although the ecological implications are not yet known. Concerns also remain over the capacity for microplastics to act as vectors for harmful chemical pollutants, including plastic additives and persistent organic pollutants, although their contribution must be evaluated alongside other known sources. The potential for humans, as top predators, to consume microplastics as contaminants in seafood is very real, and its implications for health need to be considered. An urgent need also exists to extend the geographical scope of studies of microplastic contamination in seafood species to currently underrepresented areas, and to finalize and adopt standardized methods and quality-assurance protocols for the isolation, identification, and quantification of microplastic contaminants from biological tissues. Such developments would enable more robust investigation of spatial and temporal trends, thereby contributing further evidence as a sound basis for regulatory controls. Despite the existence of considerable uncertainties and unknowns, there is already a compelling case for urgent actions to identify, control, and, where possible, eliminate key sources of both primary and secondary microplastics before they reach the marine environment. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2017;13:516-521. © 2017 SETAC.

Human dietary intake of organohalogen contaminants at e-waste recycling sites in Eastern China

This study reports concentrations and human dietary intake of hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) as well as selected "novel" brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) and organochlorine pesticides, in ten staple food categories. Samples were sourced from areas in Taizhou City, eastern China, where rudimentary recycling and disposal of e-waste is commonplace, as well as from nearby non-e-waste impacted control areas. In most instances, concentrations in foods from e-waste recycling areas exceeded those from control locations. Concentrations of 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (EH-TBB) and bis-(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate (BEH-TBP) in samples from e-waste sites were 3.09-62.2ng/g and 0.81-16.3ng/g lipid weight (lw), respectively; exceeding consistently those in foods acquired from control sites by an order of magnitude in many cases. In contrast, while concentrations of HBCD in some foods from e-waste impacted areas exceed those from control locations; concentrations in pork, shrimp, and duck liver are higher in control samples. This highlights the potential significance of non-e-waste sources of HBCD (e.g. building insulation foam) in our study areas. While concentrations of DDT in all foods examined except pork were higher in e-waste impacted samples than controls; our exposure estimates were well below the provisional tolerable daily intake of 0.01mg/kgbw/day derived by the Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues. Concentrations of ΣPCBs resulted in exposures (650 and 2340ng/kgbw/day for adults and children respectively) that exceed substantially the Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) for ΣPCBs of 20ng/kgbw/day derived by the Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry. Moreover, when expressed in terms of dioxin-like toxicity equivalency based on the four dioxin-like PCBs monitored in this study (DL-PCBs) (PCB-105, 118, 156, and 167); concentrations in e-waste impacted foods exceed limits set by the European Union in 6 of the 8 food groups studied and result in dietary exposures for children (10.2pgTEQ/kgbw/day) that exceed the WHO tolerable daily intake of 1-4pgTEQ/kgbw/day.

Human dietary exposure to PBDEs around E-waste recycling sites in Eastern China

Analysis of 10 types of locally produced staple foods (including meat, fish, and eggs), provided estimates of dietary intakes of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) for residents of areas of Taizhou City (Zhejiang Province, Eastern China), which are long-established centers of rudimentary "e-waste" recycling. Average ∑PBDE concentrations in chicken meat, eggs, and liver and duck meat and liver were among the highest recorded to date, with BDE-209 particularly abundant. The highest estimated contributions to ∑PBDE intake under a median exposure scenario were associated with adult consumption of duck eggs (3882 ng/day) and chicken eggs (1091 ng/day), and with consumption of fish by both adults (792 ng/day) and children (634 ng/day). Including estimates for ingestion of contaminated dust reported elsewhere increased median ∑PBDE daily intakes by approximately 19% for adults and 42% for children. Normalized to body weight, estimated median ∑PBDE exposures (from food and dust combined) were 130.9 ng/kg bw/day for adults and 614.1 ng/kg bw/day for children. High-end estimates of exposure for young children exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reference doses for BDE-47 and BDE-99 by factors of approximately 2.5 and 1.5, respectively.

Domestic duck eggs: an important pathway of human exposure to PBDEs around e-waste and scrap metal processing areas in Eastern China

Although consumption of local foods is recognized as an important pathway of human exposure to PBDEs in areas of China involved in rudimentary recycling of electronic waste (e-waste), dietary intake studies to date have not considered the contribution from consumption of duck eggs, despite being a common dietary component. Fresh duck eggs (n = 11) were collected from each of five farms located within 500 m of e-waste recycling workshops in the Wenling and Luqiao districts of Taizhou City, Eastern China, in November 2011, along with eggs from a control site located 90 km to the northeast. Average ΣPBDE yolk concentrations in eggs from the Taizhou farms ranged from 52.7 to 1778 ng/g lipid weight (8 ng/g lipid weight at the control site), at the high end of values previously reported for PBDEs in chicken eggs from the same locations and with BDE-209 predominant in over 60% of samples. Estimated typical adult daily ΣPBDE intakes due to consumption of duck eggs were in the range of 159-5124 ng/person per day. For the pentabrominated BDE-99 congener, estimated intakes from duck eggs alone were substantially above the no adverse effect level (NAEL) for impaired human spermatogenesis proposed by Netherlands researchers.

Levels and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soil, sediment and dust samples collected from various electronic waste recycling sites within Guiyu town, southern China

Electronic waste recycling operations in some parts of Asia are conducted using rudimentary techniques which result in workplace and environmental contamination with toxic metals and persistent organic pollutants. This study reports concentrations of 14 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), from tri- to deca-brominated, in 31 samples of soil, sediment, dust or ash collected in the vicinity of e-waste recycling sites in Guiyu (southeast China) which were engaged in common activities such as dismantling, shredding, solder recovery, acid processing and open burning. The concentrations detected in this study far exceed those reported previously in urban soil and sediment and are consistent with or exceed those reported in previous studies around e-waste processing facilities. Some of the highest PBDE concentrations reported to date (e.g. 390 000 ng g (-1) dw (∑ 14 PBDEs)) were found in a sample collected from a site used for open-burning of e-waste, while an average concentration of 220 000 ng g (-1) dw (∑ 14 PBDEs) occurred in sediments impacted by circuit board shredding. A decrease in PBDE concentrations observed with increasing distance from workshops in samples associated with acid processing of wastes provides evidence that such operations are a significant source of PBDEs to the environment. Principal components analysis reveals a complex PBDE congener distribution, suggesting contamination by two or even three commercial formulations consistent with the diverse range of wastes processed.

Dioxin- and POP-contaminated sites--contemporary and future relevance and challenges: overview on background, aims and scope of the series

BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE

Once they have been generated, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and other persistent organic pollutants (POPs) can persist in soils and sediments and in waste repositories for periods extending from decades to centuries. In 1994, the US EPA concluded that contaminated sites and other reservoirs are likely to become the major source of contemporary pollution problems with these substances. With this in mind, this article is the first in a new series in ESPR under the title 'Case Studies on Dioxin and POP Contaminated Sites--Contemporary and Future Relevance and Challenges', which will address this important issue. The series will document various experiences from sites contaminated with PCDD/F and other POPs. This article provides an overview of the content of the articles comprising the series. In addition, it provides a review of the subject in its own right and identifies the key issues arising from dioxin/POP-contaminated sites. Additionally, it highlights the important conclusions that can be drawn from these examples. The key aim of this article and of the series as a whole is to provide a comprehensive overview of the types of PCDD/F contaminated sites that exist as a result of historical activities. It details the various processes whereby these sites became contaminated and attempts to evaluate their contemporary relevance as sources of PCDD/Fs and other POPs. It also details the various strategies used to assess these historical legacies of contamination and the concepts developed, or which are under development, to effect their remediation.

MAIN FEATURES

Special sessions on 'Contaminated sites--Cases, remediation, risk and policy' were held at the DIOXIN conferences in 2006 and 2007, and this theme will be continued at DIOXIN 2008 to be held in Birmingham. Selected cases from the approximately 70 contributions made to these sessions, together with some additional invited case studies are outlined together with the key issues they raise. By evaluating these cases and adding details of experiences published in the current literature, an overview will be given of the different features and challenges of dioxin and POP-contaminated sites.

RESULTS

This article provides a systematic categorisation of types of PCDD/F and POP-contaminated sites. These are categorised according to the chemical or manufacturing process, which generated the PCDD/Fs or POPs and also includes the use and disposal aspects of the product life cycle in question. The highest historical PCDD/F and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contamination burdens have arisen as a result of the production of chlorine and of chlorinated organic chemicals. In particular, the production of chlorinated pesticides, PCBs and the related contaminated waste streams are identified being responsible for historical releases of toxic equivalents (TEQs) at a scale of many tonnes. Along with such releases, major PCDD/F contaminated sites have been created through the application or improper disposal of contaminated pesticides, PCBs and other organochlorine chemicals, as well through the recycling of wastes and their attempted destruction. In some extreme examples, PCDD/F contaminated sites have also resulted from thermal processes such as waste incinerators, secondary metal industries or from the recycling or deposition of specific waste (e.g. electronic waste or car shredder wastes), which often contain chlorinated or brominated organic chemicals. The examples of PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCB contamination of fish in European rivers or the impact of contaminated sites upon fishing grounds and upon other food resources demonstrate the relevance of these historical problems to current and future human generations. Many of the recent food contamination problems that have emerged in Europe and elsewhere demonstrate how PCDD/F and dioxin like PCBs from historical sources can directly contaminate human and animal feedstuffs and indeed highlight their considerable contemporary relevance in this respect. Accordingly, some key experiences and lessons learnt regarding the production, use, disposal and remediation of POPs from the contaminated sites are summarised.

DISCUSSION

An important criterion for evaluating the significance and risks of PCDD/Fs and other POPs at contaminated sites is their present or future potential for mobility. This, in turn, determines to a large degree their propensity for off-site transport and environmental accessibility. The detailed evaluation of contaminated site cases reveals different site-specific factors, which influence the varied pathways through which poor water-soluble POPs can be mobilised. Co-contaminants with greater water solubility are also typically present at such sites. Hence, pumping of groundwater (pump and treat) is often required in addition to attempting to physically secure a site. At an increasing number of contaminated sites, securing measures are failing after relatively short time spans compared to the time horizon, which applies to persistent organic pollutant contamination. Due to the immense costs and challenges associated with remediation of contaminated sites 'monitored natural attenuation' is increasingly gaining purchase as a conceptual remediation approach. However, these concepts may well prove limited in their practical application to contaminated sites containing persistent organic pollutants and other key pollutants like heavy metals.

CONCLUSIONS

It is inevitable, therefore, that dioxin/POP-contaminated sites will remain of contemporary and future relevance. They will continue to represent an environmental issue for future generations to address. The securing and/or remediation of dioxin/POP-contaminated sites is very costly, generally in the order of tens or hundreds of millions of dollars. Secured landfills and secured production sites need to be considered as constructions not made for 'eternity' but built for a finite time scale. Accordingly, they will need to be controlled, supervised and potentially repaired/renewed. Furthermore, the leachates and groundwater impacted by these sites will require ongoing monitoring and potential further remediation. These activities result in high maintenance costs, which are accrued for decades or centuries and should, therefore, be compared to the fully sustainable option of complete remediation. The contaminated site case studies highlight that, while extensive policies and established funds for remediation exist in most of the industrialised western countries, even these relatively well-regulated and wealthy countries face significant challenges in the implementation of a remediation strategy. This highlights the fact that ultimately only the prevention of contaminated sites represents a sustainable solution for the future and that the Polluter Pays Principle needs to be applied in a comprehensive way to current problems and those which may emerge in the future.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

With the continuing shift of industrial activities in developing and transition economies, which often have poor regulation (and weak self-regulation of industries), additional global challenges regarding POPs and other contaminated sites may be expected. In this respect, a comprehensive application of the "polluter pays principle" in these countries will also be a key to facilitate the clean-up of contaminated areas and the prevention of future contaminated sites. The threats and challenges of contaminated sites and the high costs of securing/remediating the problems highlight the need for a comprehensive approach based upon integrated pollution prevention and control. If applied to all polluting (and potentially polluting) industrial sectors around the globe, such an approach will prove to be both the cheapest and most sustainable way to underpin the development of industries in developing and transition economies.

Reclaiming the definition of sustainability

BACKGROUND AND SCOPE

Since its inception two decades ago, the concept of sustainable development has suffered from a proliferation of definitions, such that it has increasingly come to mean many things to many different people. This has limited its credibility, called into question its practical application and the significance of associated achievements and, overall, limited the progress in environmental and social developments which it was designed to underpin.

GOAL

This viewpoint article is intended to re-open the concept of sustainable development for discussion 20 years on from the Brundtland Report, in the context of the current state of the world, our growing understanding of ecosystems and their response to stressors and the parallel increase in recognition of inherent limitations to that understanding.

APPROACH

Following a brief review of the diverse manner in which the concept has developed over time, we present the case for application of a series of simple conditions for sustainability, originally developed by The Natural Step in the early 90s, which nevertheless still provide a sound basis on which progress towards sustainable development could be monitored. The paper also highlights the unavoidable links between sustainability and ethics, including those in the sensitive fields of population and quality of life.

DISCUSSION

Overall we argue the need for the concept of sustainable development to be reclaimed from the plethora of economically-focused or somewhat vague and un-measurable definitions which have found increasing favour in recent years and which all too often accompany relatively minor progress against 'business as usual'.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

The vision encapsulated in the Brundtland Report was ground-breaking. If, however, true sustainability in human interactions with the biosphere is to be realised, a far stronger and more empirical interpretation of the original intent is urgently required. To be effective, such an interpretation must encompass and guide developments in political instruments and public policy as well as corporate decision-making, and must focus increasingly on addressing the root causes of major threats to sustainability rather than just their consequences.

Effect thresholds and 'adequate control' of risks: The fatal flaws in the EU council's position on authorisation within REACH

BACKGROUND

Preparation of the new European REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of CHemicals) regulation on chemicals has reached a critical stage. Depending on how key elements of the legislative proposal are finalised, especially that on authorisation of uses of 'substances of very high concern', REACH could either provide an effective measure to drive innovation towards cleaner and safer alternatives, or instead lead to further avoidable chemical exposures on the basis of demonstrated 'adequate control' of risks. Given that some key indicators of human and wildlife reproductive health continue to decline in parts of Europe, while evidence for chemical exposure as a contributory factor grows, it will clearly be vital to get the legislation right. GOAL AND SCOPE: Whereas there is now a consensus between the European Parliament and Council of the European Union that uses of persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) and very persistent and very bioaccumulative (vPvB) substances should only be permitted when no safer alternatives are available, major differences remain regarding the manner in which other 'substances of very high concern' (including substances which are carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic to reproduction (CMRs) and endocrine disruptors) are addressed. This paper examines those differences in more detail and proposes some ways forward.

METHODS

Using case studies of specific chemicals as examples, the paper critically evaluates the concepts of 'effect thresholds' and 'adequate control' of risks, which underpin the Council's proposal for many CMRs and endocrine disruptors.

RESULTS

The subjectivity and uncertainties inherent in the threshold approach proposed by the Council, as illustrated by these case examples, bring its ability to ensure a high level of protection for the environment and human health into question: i. the nature and extent of toxic effects recorded depend on many different factors, including the type of test and conditions selected, the organisms exposed, the timing of exposure and precisely which effects are measured and over what timeframe. ii. doses considerably below 'no effect levels' for survival could nevertheless be causing significant impairment to health and/or reproductive success. iii. chemicals present in mixtures at levels below established thresholds for effects may, in combination, induce significant toxicological responses.

DISCUSSION

Under the Council's current proposal, companies will be granted authorisations for some uses of CMRs and endocrine disruptors, even if safer alternatives without these properties are already on the market. The high level of evidence required for identification of substances as being of equivalent concern represents an additional weakness in the Council approach.

CONCLUSIONS

Instead, a requirement (along the lines of the Parliament's proposals) to address the availability of alternatives in all cases, to use them when available and to initiate their development when not, represents a more robust, defensible and protective approach to the management of 'substances of very high concern'. The possibility for authorisation of essential uses would remain, while all avoidable uses and exposures would progressively be prevented and sustainable innovation supported.

PERSPECTIVES

In the long run, this can only lead to a more sustainable future for the chemical industry in Europe, as well as delivering benefits of increased protection for our environment and health for generations to come.

Playing with fire: the global threat presented by brominated flame retardants justifies urgent substitution

Few would now deny that the use of organobromine compounds to achieve fire retardancy in a diverse array of products and materials has led to contamination of the ecosphere on a widespread scale. This environmental prevalence and persistence of the brominated flame retardants, coupled with growing evidence of their potential for harm, present all too familiar parallels with the previous generation of persistent organic pollutants. Indeed, given the intrinsic properties of these brominated chemicals, the nature and extent of the current problem could well have been predicted in advance. The question is then whether we are prepared to let history repeat itself once more or to take precautionary action now to switch to more sustainable alternatives. The choice facing society is not between brominated flame retardants and unsafe products, but between fire safety leading to global contamination or fire safety achieved in less polluting ways. If we look beyond options for simple chemical-for-chemical substitution to alternative materials and designs, many of the solutions are already available. The remainder could undoubtedly be developed given the incentives to do so. However, a strong and clear policy approach, backed by legislative phase-outs within specified (and challenging) timeframes, will be necessary to break our current dependency on organobromine chemistry. This paper presents the justification for such an approach, reviews those initiatives already underway to replace brominated flame retardants and identifies pathways to the use of more sustainable products in the service of society.

Butter as an indicator of regional persistent organic pollutant contamination: further development of the approach using polychlorinated dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

The potential for use of butter as a widely available, relatively uniform lipid-rich matrix for the determination of spatial distributions of persistent organic pollutants has already been demonstrated. The present study determines the contributions to toxicity equivalence (TEQ) from polychlorinated dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) using butter samples from 24 countries world wide. Concentrations of PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs ranged from 0.07 to 5.69 pg SigmaWHO-TEQ g(-1) lipid. For most samples, PCDD/F TEQ fell within ranges reported for European dairy products over the last decade (0.3-2 pg x g(-1) lipid I-TEQ), though a single sample from Spain was a notable exception. Other than this sample, the highest values were recorded for samples from the Netherlands and Italy, with those from India, China and Tunisia also being relatively high. The contribution from non-ortho-PCBs was particularly significant in samples from Germany, Austria, Italy, the Czech Republic, Tunisia, India and Argentina. Although overall TEQs were generally highest in European and Mediterranean butters, elevated levels were also apparent in industrializing regions of Asia (India, China) and Latin America (Argentina). More detailed regional studies would be necessary to identify likely dioxin and PCB sources in each case. Nevertheless, this study supports the utility of butter as a monitoring matrix that may be especially applicable in regions for which monitoring programmes are currently lacking.

The global distribution of PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in butter

In this study we explored the use of butter as a sampling matrix to reflect the regional and global scale distribution of PCBs and selected organochlorine pesticides/metabolites in air. This was because persistent organic pollutants (POPs) concentrate in dairy fats, where concentrations are controlled by feed intake (primarily from pasture/silage), which is in turn primarily controlled by atmospheric deposition. Butter sigmaPCB concentrations varied by a factor of approximately 60 in 63 samples from 23 countries. They were highest in European and North American butter and lowest in southern hemisphere (Australian, New Zealand) samples, consistent with known patterns of historical global usage and estimated emissions. Concentrations in butter reflected differences in the propensity of PCB congeners to undergo long range atmospheric transport from global source regions to remote areas and the relatively even distribution of HCB in the global atmosphere. Concentrations of p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDE, and HCH isomers all varied over many orders of magnitude in the butter samples, with highest levels in areas of current use (e.g. India and south/central America for DDT; India, China, and Spain for HCH). We conclude that butter is sensitive to local, regional, and global scale spatial and temporal atmospheric trends of many POPs and may therefore provide a useful sampling medium for monitoring purposes. However, to improve the quantitative information derived on air concentrations requires an awareness of climatic and livestock management factors which influence air-milk fat transfer processes.

Concentrations of phthalate esters and identification of other additives in PVC children's toys

This study was intended to provide data on the composition of soft PVC toys, addressing the widest practicable range of chemical additives and including non-phthalate additives. The study also included toys from as many countries as possible, since for many, no data were available. A total of 72 toys were purchased in 17 countries. The majority (64) were PVC or had PVC sections. In almost all the soft PVC toys analysed, phthalates comprised a sizeable proportion (most frequently 10-40%) of the total weight of the toy. The predominant phthalates detected were diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Other phthalates identified in high concentrations in some toys include isomeric mixes of diisooctyl phthalate (DIOP) and diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP). The estrogenic chemical nonylphenol was isolated from 13 toys, while 2 toys were found to contain the fungicide Fungitrol 11 (Folpet). 78% of PVC toys contained one or more extractable organic compounds in addition to those reported above.

Organochlorine residues in fish oil dietary supplements: comparison with industrial grade oils

The market for fish oils as dietary supplements is of global importance. Although it is widely recognised that lipophilic organic chemicals, particularly organochlorines, can accumulate in fish oils, dietary supplements are not routinely considered when estimating average daily intakes for these contaminants. This paper reports levels of organochlorine residues in 44 fish oils, collected from 15 countries between 1994 and 1995, including 38 purchased over the counter as dietary supplements. Despite controls on the use of persistent organochlorine substances, appreciable quantities are found in oils sold as dietary supplements. Levels are discussed in relation to the significance of fish oil dietary supplements as contributors to daily intake of PCBs and pesticide residues.