[Flow cytometry in the diagnosis of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a case with fatal outcome]

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is a multisystem inflammation, generated by the uncontrolled and excessive activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. Severe immunodeficiency and generalized macrophage activation can often be detected in the background of this life threatening disorder. It is classified as a primary immunodeficiency. Functional abnormalities of the perforin protein or defects in granule secretory mechanisms are caused by gene mutations in most cases. Diagnostic criteria of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis are the following: fever, splenomegaly, cytopenias affecting at least two of the 3 lineages in peripheral blood, hypertriglyceridemia and hyperferritinemia, elevated serum level of soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sCD25), hypofibrinogenemia, hemophagocytosis in bone marrow and decreased cytotoxic T cell and natural killer cell activity. In this case report the authors summarize the utility of functional flow cytometry in the diagnosis of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Using flow cytometry, elevated intracellular perforin content, decreased killing activity of cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells, and impaired cell surface expression of CD107a (LAMP1 protein) from in vitro stimulated blood lymphocytes were detected. Abnormal secretion of perforin was also demonstrated. Genetic testing revealed mutation of the MUNC 13-4 gene, which confirmed the base of the abnormal flow cytometric findings. This case report demonstrates the value of functional flow cytometry in the rapid diagnosis of genetically determined hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, a condition in which early diagnosis is critical for optimal management. The authors emphasize the significance of functional flow cytometry in the differential diagnosis of immunodeficiencies.

Changes in the hormone (ACTH, insulin,epinephrine) content of immune cells in children having acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL)

Immune cells synthesize, store and secrete hormones, the level of which changes in ALL. In previous experiments the level of histamine, serotonin and triiodothyronine (T3)was studied, while at present that of ACTH, insulin and epinephrine, using flow cytometric analysis for the determination of cell subsets and detection of hormone content. The measurements were done in children at the time of diagnosis. ACTH was significantly elevated in each T cell subsets (total T, Th, Tc, activated T), while B and NK cells were not touched. The alterations in the insulin content (decrease in Tc and activated T cells) were uncertain, and NK cells contained significantly less insulin. The disease did not influence the cells' epinephrine content. There is not clear explanation for the importance of changes in the cells' hormone content, however, it is discussed in the text.

[Flow cytometry: is it a novel tool in microbiological diagnostics?]

Direct detection of pathogens is time- and labor-intensive. There is an increasing demand for new rapid microbiological testing methods, which would be faster and more sensitive than the conventional ones. Initially, automated methods were applied for the testing of bacteremia, urinary tract infections, characterization of antimicrobial susceptibility and quantitation of pathogen specific antibodies. Recently the nucleic acid-based detection methods have also become a routine. The molecular biological methods accelerate diagnosis, enhance specificity and provide an opportunity to identify pathogens with potential difficulties in culturing. However, they do not give any information about the immune status of the host. Yet it should also be borne in mind that detection of pathogen-specific nucleic acids is not equivalent to the presence of living microbes. The greatest advantage of FACS against these techniques is the capability to identify individual microbial cells as well. High speed FACS becomes a priority in the characterization of slow-growing microbes and identification of pathogens in mixed infections. Last but not least, it allows the monitoring of immune status and follow up of antimicrobial therapy.

Both freshly prepared and frozen-stored amniotic membrane cells express the complement inhibitor CD59

Amniotic membrane proved to be very effective tool in the treatment of a number of ocular surface diseases. The amniotic membrane, however, has to be stored before its transplantation onto the ocular surface followed by mandatory serologic control in order to exclude the transmission of certain viruses. Therefore it is most important to study if cryopreservation of the membrane affects cell surface expression of the molecules. We measured cell surface expression of CD59, a membrane-bound complement inhibitor on the cells of freshly prepared and cryopreserved amniotic membrane. Cells of amniotic membrane were separated mechanically. Epithelial and mesenchymal cells were identified by the intracellular expression of nanog and the cell surface ICAM1 positivity, respectively. Multicolor flow cytometric immunophenotyping was used for determination of the CD59 expression. CellQuest-Pro software program (Becton Dickinson) was used both for measurements and analysis. CD59-positive cells could be detected in all investigated samples and in all investigated cell types, although the expression level of CD59 differed. CD59 was expressed both on freshly prepared and frozen-stored samples. Higher level of CD59 was detected on ICAM1+ mesenchymal cells than on nanog+ epithelial cells. Our findings indicate that amniotic membranes maintain their complement inhibiting capacity after cryopreservation.

Thyrotropin (TSH) regulates triiodothyronine (T3) production in the unicellular Tetrahymena

The aim of the experiments was to study the regulation of triiodothyronine (T3) production in the unicellular Tetrahymena. Untreated and troph-hormone treated specimen were prepared and in different timepoints T3 content was measured and compared by immunocytochemical flow cytometry. 0.1 or 0.001 IU TSH in tryptone-yeast medium stimulated T3 synthesis at 10, 20, 30 min, but does not stimulate after 1 h. The overlapping gonadotropic hormone (GTH) also did it, however only at 10 min. In Losina salt solution (physiological for Tetrahymena) the effect was weaker, however outer amino acid source was not absolutely needed for the production of the hormone. The results show that the TSH regulation of thyroid hormone synthesis (storage, secretion) and troph-hormone overlap can be deduced to a unicellular level. This may allow the hypothesis that the endocrine mechanisms proved at a low level of phylogeny are preserved for the higher ranked organisms.

Membrane vesicles, current state-of-the-art: emerging role of extracellular vesicles

Release of membrane vesicles, a process conserved in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, represents an evolutionary link, and suggests essential functions of a dynamic extracellular vesicular compartment (including exosomes, microparticles or microvesicles and apoptotic bodies). Compelling evidence supports the significance of this compartment in a broad range of physiological and pathological processes. However, classification of membrane vesicles, protocols of their isolation and detection, molecular details of vesicular release, clearance and biological functions are still under intense investigation. Here, we give a comprehensive overview of extracellular vesicles. After discussing the technical pitfalls and potential artifacts of the rapidly emerging field, we compare results from meta-analyses of published proteomic studies on membrane vesicles. We also summarize clinical implications of membrane vesicles. Lessons from this compartment challenge current paradigms concerning the mechanisms of intercellular communication and immune regulation. Furthermore, its clinical implementation may open new perspectives in translational medicine both in diagnostics and therapy.

Increased synthesis of vascular endothelial growth factor in allergic airway inflammation in histidine decarboxylase knockout (HDC(-/-)) mice

Histamine and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of allergic asthma; they enhance inflammation, vascular permeability, and mucus secretion. Histamine was suggested to alter the level of VEGF via the H2 receptors. Here the authors have applied histidine decarboxylase gene-targeted (HDC(-/-)) mice, lacking histamine, to investigate the effect of histamine deficiency on VEGF expression in an animal model of asthma. HDC(-/-) and wild-type (WT) mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA). VEGF mRNA expression and protein level were determined in the lung. Number of VEGF-positive immune cells of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and their intracellular VEGF content were measured by flow cytometry. VEGF protein level in the lung and in the BAL cells was increased in OVA treated (HDC(-/-)(ova) as well as in WT(ova)) animals compared to their controls. However, there was no difference in the VEGF levels between HDC(-/-) or WT animals, either in the lung or in the BAL cells. In conclusion, increased VEGF production of the lung or BAL immune cells can be induced by allergen provocation independently from the genetic background of the animals. These data suggest that VEGF-mediated allergic processes can persist in the absence of histamine.

Hormonal effects on Tetrahymena: change in case of combined treatment

In order to approach their natural conditions, populations of Tetrahymena were kept in Losina-Losinky's salt solution for 1 h, than in the tryptone+yeast medium. During this time they were treated with histamine, serotonin or insulin, or with the combinations of these hormones. Effect of the combined treatments on the production of serotonin (5HT), or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or triiodothyronine (T₃) by the cells was compared to the effect of single-hormone treatments. Significant differences were seen between the results obtained following the single or combined treatments. There was no summation of the effects, however an elevation or diminution of the hormone production was observed after the combined treatment, as compared with the untreated controls or with the use of one of the hormones in the samples. The experiments demonstrate that there is a hormonal regulation between the Tetrahymena cells and the hormones influence each other's effect.

The miR-290-295 cluster promotes pluripotency maintenance by regulating cell cycle phase distribution in mouse embryonic stem cells

The mmu-miR-290-295 cluster codes for a family of microRNAs (miRNAs) that are expressed de novo during early embryogenesis and are specific for mouse embryonic stem cells (ESC) and embryonic carcinoma cells (ECC). Detailed sequence analysis and alignment studies of miR-290-295 precursors demonstrated that the cluster has evolved by repeated duplication events of the ancient miR-290 precursor. We show that under serum starvation, overexpression of miR-290-295 miRNAs withhold ES cells from early differentiation, ensures their high proliferation rate and capacity for forming alkaline phosphate positive colonies. Transcriptome analysis revealed that differentiation related marker genes are underexpressed upon high miR-290-295 level. Importantly, miR-290-295 overexpression prevents ES cells from accumulation in G1 phase at low serum level, and seems to regulate cell cycle in different phases. Our data underline that miR-290-295 miRNAs contribute to the natural absence of G1 checkpoint in embryonic stem cells. We define the cell cycle regulators Wee1 and Fbxl5 as potential direct targets of miR-290-295 miRNAs in vitro. Our results suggest that miR-290-295 miRNAs exhibit their effect predominantly through the regulation of cell cycle phase distribution.

Effects of different fixatives on demonstrating epinephrine and ACTH hormones in Tetrahymena

The unicellular Tetrahymena produces, contains, and secretes many hormones characteristic of higher animals. We tested three fixatives, formaldehyde, N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDAC), and glutaraldehyde for suitability for immunocytochemical demonstration of epinephrine and adrenocorticotropic harmone (ACTH) in Tetrahymena. Using flow cytometric immunocytochemistry, staining of ACTH was highest after EDAC fixation and that of epinephrine after glutaraldehyde fixation. Using laser scanning confocal microscopy, formaldehyde fixation prevented staining. Glutaraldehyde fixation produced high autofluorescence, which obscured specific staining. After EDAC fixation, ACTH was localized in the ciliary row; however, demonstration of epinephrine was not improved. Our results show that there is no "fixative for any hormone." Different fixatives are needed to demonstrate different hormones in Tetrahymena.

Effect of stress and stress hormones on the hormone (insulin) binding of Tetrahymena

The unicellular Tetrahymena pyriformis GL produce, store and secrete vertebrate-like hormones. In earlier experiments the effect of different stressors on the hormone levels of Tetrahymena was studied and an elevation of these was found. In the present experiments the hormone binding was investigated, using flow cytometric method. FITC-insulin binding was elevated after concentrated (5, 10, or 20 mg ml(-1)) NaCl or 0.01%, 0.1%, or 0.05% formaldehyde treatment, or after thermal stress (37 degrees C). Serotonin given together with NaCl increased and together with formaldehyde decreased the binding. Histamine always decreased the binding and insulin was indifferent. Four hours after osmotic stress, hormone binding significantly decreased and this was not influenced by hormones. However, 4 h after formaldehyde stress the binding elevated and this was further increased by repeated hormone treatments. The results show that the stress in Tetrahymena provokes an activation of its hormonal system (hormone production and binding), which is differently influenced by exogeneously given hormones.

Extramedullary hematopoiesis is dysregulated in histamine-free histidine decarboxylase knockout (HDC-/-) mice

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN

In this study we investigated the role of histamine on the extramedullary hematopoiesis.

METHODS

Male histidine decarboxylase knockout (HDC(-/-)) mice and wild-type mice were used (n = 5/group). Groups of mice received sublethal total-body gamma irradiation at a single dose of 4 Gy. Spleen cells were studied at different time points post-irradiation by flow cytometry, colony forming unit (CFU) assay, and real-time PCR. For statistical analysis Student's t test, ANOVA, and Holm-Sidak post-hoc test were used.

RESULTS

By day 14 after irradiation, spleen cell counts increased almost eightfold in wild-type and not even fourfold in HDC(-/-) mice (P < 0.01). The proliferative capacity and interleukin-3 signaling of stem cells were impaired in HDC(-/-) mice. STAT5 mRNA expression was decreased in granulocyte-myeloid colonies by 72.9 +/- 8.6% (P < 0.001), compared to the wild-type.

CONCLUSIONS

The absence of histamine adversely affects splenic hematopoiesis via direct and indirect mechanisms.

Galectin-9 in allergic airway inflammation and hyper-responsiveness in mice

BACKGROUND

Galectin-9 (Gal-9) is a member of the growing family of beta-galactoside-binding lectins. Gal-9 is an eosinophil chemoattractant and inducer of Th1 cell apoptosis. These effects suggest its potential role in the pathogenesis of asthma. Our aim was to study the expression of Gal-9 in an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced mouse model of allergic asthma.

METHODS

To investigate the significance of Gal-9 in allergic inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), a group of BALB/c mice was sensitized and challenged with OVA (G(OVA)). Another group of animals was allergized with OVA and also treated with dexamethasone (DEX) (G(OVA+DEX)). The control group (G(PBS)) received phosphate-buffered saline instead of OVA as placebo. Airway reactivity to intravenous methacholine was assessed.

RESULTS

The percentage of Gal-9-positive cells and their intracellular Gal-9 content and Th1/Th2 cytokine levels in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) were determined by flow cytometry. Gal-9 mRNA expression and protein level were measured in the lung tissue by real-time RT-PCR and Western blot. In G(OVA )mice, airway inflammation and mucus hypersecretion developed. DEX treatment inhibited the main features of experimental asthma. The number of Gal-9-positive lymphocytes, eosinophil and neutrophil granulocytes and the levels of Th2 cytokines were higher in the BAL of G(OVA) compared to G(PBS) or G(OVA+DEX )mice. Moreover, Gal-9 protein level was elevated in the lungs of G(OVA) mice.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that Gal-9 plays a role as a mediator contributing to the development of allergic airway inflammation. Gal-9 may serve as a recruiter of eosinophil granulocytes and promoter of Th2 dominance.

Influence of perinatal stress on the hormone content in immune cells of adult rats: dominance of ACTH

Rat dams were stressed by total deprivation of food and water for 48 h just before or directly after delivery and the offspring were studied when adult. The immune cells' hormone content (ACTH, histamine, serotonin, and T(3)) was measured by immunocytochemical flow cytometry. The elevation of ACTH content in males was convincing in each cell type (lymphocytes, monocytes and granulocytes, and mast cells). The change in histamine and T(3) content was inconsistent, while serotonin level did not change at all. As ACTH is the key hormone in the General Adaptation Syndrome, it seems likely that the perinatal stress primarily caused elevation in ACTH level and it was provoking the life-long hormonal imprinting. There was a difference between the reaction of males and females (with males' advance), which points to the gender dependence of the phenomenon. It is important that the effect of stress on the offspring was similar in case of direct (prenatal, in the mother) and indirect (postnatal, transmitted by milk) stress treatment, which calls attention to the danger of stress during this latter period.

Thyrotropic hormone (TSH) regulation of triiodothyronine (T(3)) concentration in immune cells

OBJECTIVE

Cells of the immune system (peritoneal lymphocytes, monocytes, granulocytes and mast cells as well as thymocytes) contain triiodothyronine (T(3)). The aim of the present experiments was to study whether thyrotropic hormone (TSH) regulates or not the T(3) concentration of these cells.

METHODS

Peritoneal fluid and thymus cells of adult rats were studied by immunocytochemistry, combined with flow cytometry for triiodothyronine content with or without in-vitro TSH treatment. In addition, adult female CD1 mice were treated in vivo with 10 or 40 mU TSH and after 1 hour peritoneal immune cells were studied using the above mentioned method.

RESULTS

Both in vitro (in rat) and in vivo (in mice) TSH treatments significantly elevated the T(3) content in each cell type. In vitro TSH 0.1 mU/ml cell suspension was enough to provoke about 50 % increase in T(3) production.

CONCLUSION

T(3) concentration in immune cells seems to be regulated by TSH, similarly to the T(3) in the thyroid. Considering the large number of immune cells in an organism, TSH regulation of their T(3) content could have an important physiological and pathological role, both in and beyond the immune system.

Presence and distribution of biogenic amines (histamine, serotonin and epinephrine) in immunophenotyped human immune cells

OBJECTIVE

In animal experiments many hormones were demonstrated in immune cells. However, very few data are at our disposal in the case of human immune cells. In an earlier experiment, ACTH, endorphin and T(3) were studied and found in different subsets of human immune cells. Here, three biogenic amines (histamine, serotonin and epinephrine) were studied.

METHODS

Biogenic amine content of immunophenotyped human lymphocytes from 15 blood donors were investigated by multicolor flow cytometry using anti-biogenic amine antibodies. Monocytes and granulocytes separated by size and granularity were also studied.

RESULTS

Each biogenic amine could be detected in each subset of leukocytes, except epinephrine and serotonin in granulocytes. Activated T cells contained a higher amount of the amines, and CD19+B cells a higher amount of histamine, related to the whole lymphocyte population and to other subsets. Monocytes contained more histamine and epinephrine than lymphocytes and granulocytes contained twice as much histamine as monocytes and three times as much as lymphocytes.

CONCLUSION

Human lymphocytes contain the three biogenic amine, similar to rat. However, while each amine was present in monocytes, in granulocytes serotonin and epinephrine were not demonstrated. The results call attention to the possible extrapolation of animal data to human lymphocytes and monocytes, but in the case of granulocytes, caution is needed. Taking into consideration earlier results, activated T cells appear to have an important role in the loss or production of hormones inside the immune system.

Effects of sodium fluoride (NaF) on the cilia and microtubular system of Tetrahymena

The effect of the nucleophilic reagent NaF on the microtubular system of Tetrahymena was studied by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), confocal microscopy, and flow cytometry. Treatments with 40 mM NaF significantly reduced the amount of alpha-tubulin while 80 mM treatment did not alter its quantity. One possible explanation for this alpha-tubulin overexpression is that the higher amount of alpha-tubulin enables this organism to carry out the appropriate function of the cytoskeleton under this undesirable influence of higher amounts of 80 nM NaF. However, the amount of acetylated tubulin increased in a dose-dependent manner. The cilia became fragile under the effect of 80 mM NaF. Confocal microscopy revealed that after 40 mM NaF treatment transversal microtubule bands (TMs) and longitudinal microtubule bands (LMs) as well as basal bodies (BBs) were extremely strong decorated with anti-acetylated tubulin antibody and TM-localization abnormalities were visible. In the 80 mM NaF-treated cells, the deep fiber of oral apparatus was very strongly labeled, while the TMs and LMs were less decorated with anti-acetylated tubulin antibody, and LM deformities were visible. It is supposed that post-translational tubulin modifications (e.g., acetylation) defend the microtubules against the NaF-induced injury. NaF is able to influence the activity of several enzymes and G-proteins, therefore is capable to alter the structure, metabolism, and the dynamics of microtubular system. The possible connection of signaling and cytoskeletal system in Tetrahymena is discussed.

In vitro cytotoxicity, chemotactic effect, and cellular uptake of branched polypeptides with poly[L-lys] backbone by J774 murine macrophage cell line

Branched polypeptides with polylysine backbone are promising candidates for selective delivery of drugs, epitopes. or reporter molecules. We reported earlier that polylysine-based polypeptides with polyanionic character were internalized by murine bone marrow derived macrophages via class A scavenger receptor. In the present studies, our investigations were extended to seven polypeptides with different amino acid composition and charge properties. We report on our findings on the concentration-dependent influence of these compounds on survival and chemotaxis of the murine macrophage-like cell line J774 and internalization properties of the polypeptides by J774 cells. Our observations indicate that the polypeptides regardless of their charge properties were essentially nontoxic and did not alter significantly the chemotaxis of J774 cells; therefore, the polypeptides suit the requirements for nontoxic and "neutral" carrier molecules. We also demonstrated that the polypeptides were internalized efficiently by J774 cells, depending on their chemical structure and charge properties. Using the scavenger receptor-ligand fucoidan as inhibitor, we established that the scavenger receptor played a role-in accordance with findings on murine bone marrow derived macrophages in the internalization only of the polyanionic polypeptides.

T lymphocytes are targets for platelet- and trophoblast-derived microvesicles during pregnancy

Microvesicles (MVs) can derive from several cell types and their membranes contain cell surface elements. Their role is increasingly recognized in cell-to-cell communication, as they act as both paracrine and remote messengers, occurring in circulating form as well as in plasma. Successful pregnancy requires a series of interactions between the maternal immune system and the implanted fetus, such that the semi-allograft will not be rejected. These interactions occur at the materno-placental interface and/or at a systemic level. In the present study we identified for the first time the in vivo plasma pattern of the MVs of third-trimester, healthy pregnant women, their cellular origin, and their target cells using flow cytometry and confocal laser microscopy. We searched for the cellular target molecules of thrombocyte-derived MVs with the help of neutralizing antibodies. We examined the in vitro effects of MVs on STAT3 phosphorylation of primary lymphocytes and Jurkat cells. We found that both placental trophoblast-derived and maternal thrombocyte-derived MVs bind to circulating peripheral T lymphocytes, but not to B lymphocytes or NK cells. We were able to show that the P-selectin (CD62P)-PSGL-1 (CD162) interaction is one mechanism binding platelet-derived MVs to T cells. We were also able to demonstrate that MV-lymphocyte interactions induce STAT3 phosphorylation in T cells. Our findings indicate that both thrombocyte- and trophoblast-derived MVs may play an important role in the immunomodulation of pregnancy. We suggest that the transfer of different signals via MVs represents a novel form of communication between the placenta and the maternal immune system, and that MVs contribute to the establishment of stable immune tolerance to the semi-allograft fetus.

Effect of concanavalin A (Con-A) on the hormone production of the unicellular Tetrahymena and the immune cells of the rat. A comparative study

Tetrahymena populations were treated with 10(-15) g ml(-1) or 10(-6) g ml(-1) concanavalin-A (Con-A) in tryptone-yeast medium for 1 h. Rat peritoneal immune cells (mast cells, lymphocytes, monocyte-granulocyte group) were also treated with 10(-6) g ml(-1) Con-A, for 1 h. The cells' hormone (ACTH, histamine, serotonin, endorphin, triiodothyronine (T(3))) content was measured by using immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry. The extremely low dose of Con-A universally and significantly elevated the hormone contents, while the result of higher dose was uncertain. In the immune cells, Con-A significantly decreased the ACTH level in each cell type and histamine level in mast cells. The results demonstrate the very high sensitivity of Tetrahymena receptors for a non-hormone (lectin) molecule, which can bind to the insulin receptors and mimics the effect of insulin. The results also show that Tetrahymena receptors are more sensitive to lower concentrations of molecules than to higher ones. The universal hormone-production stimulating effect of Con-A-which is observed in Tetrahymena-is specified in rat.

Effect of femtomolar concentrations of hormones on insulin binding by Tetrahymena, as a function of time

The unicellular ciliate Tetrahymena, contains and binds hormones, characteristic of vertebrates. Earlier experiments demonstrated the effect of extremely low concentrations of hormones. In the present experiments, the effect of various hormones (endorphin, serotonin, histamine, insulin and epidermal growth factor [EGF]) in 10(-15) M, or oxytocin, gonadotropin at 0.001 IU concentrations) on the binding of FITC-insulin was studied by using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, after 1, 5, 15, 30 and 60 min. Six of the seven hormones promptly decreased the cells' hormone binding capacity, the exception being EGF, and in four cases (endorphin, serotonin, insulin and oxytocin) the reduction was enormous. The decreased binding was durable. However, in the case of endorphin and oxytocin after 30 min, and in the case of serotonin after 60 min the binding returned to the control level. In the case of oxytocin after 60 min, binding significantly surpassed the control level. Histamine returned to the control level after 15 min, but after that the binding became even lower. EGF provoked special behaviour: it increased hormone binding after 30 and 60 min. The results call attention to the extreme sensitivity of Tetrahymena receptors to hormonal inductions and to its quick response ability.

Impact of systemic histamine deficiency on the crosstalk between mammary adenocarcinoma and T cells

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the influence of lack of histamine (HA) on tumor growth and functions of T cells in order further to illustrate the mechanism of immunological tolerance induction by HA. We assessed the phenotype and cytokine production of splenic lymphocytes in syngeneic HA-free (histidine decarboxylase knock-out) (HDC KO) and wild-type mice, inoculated subcutaneously with the LM2 murine breast cancer cell line. Relative quantification of target mRNA was performed with a TaqMan real-time RT-PCR assay. The CD4(+)CD25(high+) Treg cell numbers were significantly smaller in the tumor-bearing KO mice than in the wild type ones measured by flow-cytometry. The expression of forkhead box P3 (Foxp3) decreased significantly and the copies of splenic Tbox-21 (T-bet) transcriptional factor mRNA was higher in HDC KO tumor-bearing mice than those of normal mice. The cytokine levels showed that a smaller number of interleukin-13-producing Th2 cells were elicited compared to interferon-gamma-producing Th1 cells in the tumor-bearing HDC KO mice. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that endogenous histamine stimulates the growth of breast adenocarcinoma tumor implants in mice by suppressing anti-tumor immunity.

Effect of histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA) on the microtubular system of Tetrahymena

Histone deacetylases can also influence acetylation of tubulin. In the present experiments, after 60 min of 10 microM trichostatin (TSA) treatment the structure and amount of tubulin and acetylated-tubulin were studied immunocytochemically, by using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. In TSA-treated Tetrahymena cells deep fibres were never labeled with antibody to acetylated tubulin. Flow cytometry with anti acetylated-tubulin antibody demonstrated that in the contol cell populations there were weaker and stronger labelled parts. After TSA treatment in the weaker labeled part the cell number decreased, and in the stronger labeled part increased significantly: this means that after the histone deacetylase inhibitor TSA treatment the amount of acetylated-tubulin in numerous Tetrahymena cells is significantly elevated. Labeling with anti-tubulin antibody was not changed significantly. On the basis of these results we postulate that histone deacetylase also in Tetrahymena influences the acetylation of tubulin, and this enzyme is sensitive to TSA treatments.

A hormone map of human immune cells showing the presence of adrenocorticotropic hormone, triiodothyronine and endorphin in immunophenotyped white blood cells

The amounts of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), endorphin and triiodothyronine (T3) in twenty-six blood samples from men and women who were healthy or had non-haematological diseases were determined by flow cytometry. Lymphocytes were immunophenotyped using monoclonal antibodies against cell surface antigens, and monocytes and granulocytes were separated by their size and granularity (using forward-scatter versus side-scatter dot plots). Each hormone was found in each cell type. The hormone content of lymphocytes was balanced, but the concentration of ACTH was significantly lower in activated T cells, that of endorphin was significantly lower in natural killer (NK) cells, and that of T3 was lower in both cell types compared with values for all lymphocytes. Monocytes and granulocytes contained very significantly more hormones than lymphocytes or monocytes. The concentration of endorphin was an order of magnitude higher in granulocytes than in monocytes or lymphocytes, reflecting the pain-relieving role of granulocytes during inflammation. Compared with monocytes, in granulocytes there was a higher concentration of ACTH and a lower concentration of T3, which suggests selective hormone production by these cells.

Effect of serotonin-acting agents on the serotonin content of immune cells. A peculiar observation

The effect of the tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor, PCPA methylester, the serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine and MAO-A inhibitor clorgyline on the serotonin content of rat immune cells was studied, using labelled antibodies and flow cytometry. Each molecule significantly increased in males the serotonin concentration of peritoneal lymphocytes and the monocyte-macrophage-granulocyte group (mo-gran), however the agents were ineffective towards mast cells. In females fluoxetine and clorgyline increased the serotonin concentration in peritoneal lymphocytes and mo-gran. Fluoxetine also increased the serotonin level in mast cells. Thymus was absolutely resistant to the drugs in both genders. The results call attention (1) to the reverse effect of serotonin-acting agents on immune cells, (2) to the influence of the milieu where the cell is located and (3) the effect of gender.

Effects of taxol treatment on the microtubular system and mitochondria of Tetrahymena

Complex investigation was done using immunocytochemical confocal microscopy, electron microscopy and flow cytometry on the effect of taxol to the microtubular arrangement and dynamics. The most interesting phenomenon was the rapid disappearance of transversal microtubule bands, while longitudinal microtubule bands remained and were submitted to the known effects of taxol. There was a broad variation in mitochondrial effect, some of them remained normal, while others swollen, desintegrated and their tubules disoriented. Treatment with 50 nM taxol significantly reduced the binding of anti alpha-tubulin antibody and a lesser degree anti-acetylated tubulin antibody. The difference between the transversal and longitudinal microtubules is emphasized by the results and the paper discusses the possibilities of indirect effects of taxol to the transversal microtubules (tubulin-GTP interaction, faster turnover, mitochondrial interaction). Polyglutamylation of tubulin has not a role in this difference.

Histamine H1 and H2 receptors but not H4 receptors are upregulated during bone marrow regeneration

The role of histamine receptors in radiation-induced bone marrow (BM) regeneration was investigated with aspects of functional genomics. H1R and H2R mRNA expression increased during regeneration in both histidine decarboxylase knockout (HDC-/-) and wild type (HDC+/+) mice, though to a lesser extent in HDC-/- mice. H4R mRNA expression was downregulated in both groups. Mainly CD34+ cells were responsible for the elevation of intracellular histamine and HDC content in HDC+/+ BM cell populations. The differential changes in the expression of its receptors, and also its elevated levels in hematopoietic progenitors support the regulatory role of histamine in BM regeneration, that could be further explored by future gene expression studies.

Transgenerational effect of neonatal vitamin A or D treatment (hormonal imprinting) on the hormone content of rat immune cells

Male offspring of neonatally vitamin A or D treated (hormonally imprinted) rat dams were studied for hormone (adrenocorticotrophine [ACTH], beta-endorphin, histamine, triiodothyronine [T3]) content in immune cells, by using immunocytochemical methods for flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. ACTH and T3 were almost doubled in the lymphocytes of vitamin A treated mothers' offspring, while histamine decreased to a one-third in the histamine content of vitamin D treated mothers' offspring. Part of the animals received vitamin treatment again 24 hours before measurement, however, only endorphin content elevated moderately. In the offspring of untreated dams administered with vitamin D 24 hours before measurement, each cell type studied (lymphocyte, monocyte-granulocyte group, mast cell) had a one-third lower T3 content, which shows that vitamin D treatment can influence hormone content of immune cells. The experiments call attention to the transgenerational effect of perinatal treatment with lipid-soluble, intracellular receptor-bound vitamins.

In vitro effect of biogenic amines on the hormone content of immune cells of the peritoneal fluid and thymus. Is there a hormonal network inside the immune system?

Immune cells contain different hormones and hormone-like molecules, such as insulin, endorphin, triiodothyronine (T3) histamine, serotonin. In earlier in vitro experiments insulin down-regulated histamine, serotonin and T3 content of thymus cells. Now we studied the effect of biogenic amines on the endorphin, T3, serotonin and histamine content of rat peritoneal and thymic cells. Cells were obtained from male rats of 100g body weight. 100 ng/ml serotonin or 300 ng/ml histamine was added for 30 min. After that the cells were prepared for flow cytometric analysis with antibodies to endorphin, T3, histamine and serotonin as primary antibodies and anti-rabbit IgG as secondary antibody. Finishing the measurements the cells were also studied by confocal microscopy. T3 concentration (binding of anti-T3 antibody) increased in peritoneal mast cells after serotonin treatment and in the monocyte-macrophage-granulocyte group after histamine treatment. Thymocytes' T3 content radically decreased after both treatments. Serotonin and histamine treatment also radically reduced the amine content of each other. Endorphin level was resistant to hormonal treatments. The results call attention to a possible hormonal network inside the immune system in which hormones produced by the immune cells themselves can influence each other.

Increased hormone levels in Tetrahymena after long-lasting starvation

Tetrahymena contains vertebrate hormone-like materials. The level of one of these, insulin increased during starvation in a previous experiment. We hypothesized that other hormones are also influenced by starvation. To prove the hypothesis Tetrahymena pyriformis cultures were (1) starved for 24h; (2) starved for 24h and re-fed for 30min or (3) starved for 30min. Amount and localization of vertebrate-like hormones, produced by Tetrahymena, beta-endorphin, adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), serotonin, histamine, insulin and triiodothyronine (T(3)) were studied by immunocytochemical methods using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Long starvation elevated with 50% the hormone levels, while short starvation moderately elevated only the serotonin level in the cells. After short re-feeding endorphin and histamine returned to the basal level, ACTH and serotonin approached the basal level, however, remained significantly higher, while insulin and T(3) stood at the starvation level. The results show that such a stress as long starvation provokes the enhanced production of hormones which likely needed for tolerating the life-threatening effect of stress.

Serotonin content is elevated in the immune cells of histidine decarboxylase gene knock-out (HDCKO) mice. Focus on mast cells

OBJECTIVE

Biogenic amines, histamine and serotonin are present in the granules and nucleus of mast cells. We wanted to study the presence, amount and localization of serotonin in mast cells and other cells of the immune system, under conditions of histamine deficiency caused by knock out of histamine decarboxylase gene (HDCKO).

METHODS

Wild type and histamine deficient HDCKO mice were studied for serotonin content of the immune cells (lymphocytes as well as the monocyte-granulocyte-mast cell group) using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Groups of mice were kept either on complete rodent chow or on a histamine-free diet for a month before the experiments.

RESULTS

The amount of serotonin was significantly higher in the KO animals, irrespective of the diet. Confocal microscopy demonstrated the presence of serotonin in the nucleus of mast cells in the wild type animals, while it was not present in the KO mice. Furthermore, in the cytoplasm (granules) of KO mast cells a bright fluorescence was observed in contrast to the pale fluorescence of wild animals.

CONCLUSION

It seems likely that serotonin replaces the deficient histamine in the heparin-biogenic amine complex in the mast cell granules.

Comparison of the insulin binding, uptake and endogeneous insulin content in long- and short-term starvation inTetrahymena

FITC-insulin binding and endogenous insulin content of Tetrahymena pyriformis, that had been 24 h or 30 min starved, continuously fed or re-fed after starvation was studied by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Long starvation elevated both insulin binding and endogenous insulin content of the cells. Short re-feeding after long starvation or short starvation after continuous feeding does not change the situation. Fixed cells also bind FITC-insulin, however, in this case long starvation reduces, and re-feeding after long starvation elevates, the binding, which means that hormone binding by receptors only differs from receptor binding and engulfment (in living cells). The increase of FITC-insulin content in living cells seems to be due to engulfment, rather than by receptor binding. The results point to the unicellular organism's requirement for insulin production and binding in a life-threatening stress situation.

Impact of neonatal imprinting with vitamin A or D on the hormone content of rat immune cells

Neonatal single vitamin A (retinol; 3 mg) or vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol; 0.05 mg) treatment (imprinting) was done in male and female rats and 2 months later the endorphin, triiodothyronine (T3) and ACTH content of immune cells (peritoneal lymphocytes, monocyte-granulocyte-macrophage group [mo-gran], mast cells and thymic lymphocytes) were studied immunocytochemically by using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The T3 content was significantly decreased in peritoneal lymphocytes and in mo-gran and the endorphin content decreased in thymocytes of male animals, while ACTH was decreased in female lymphocytes and mo-gran. Vitamin D treatment was absolutely ineffective. The imprinting effects of vitamins A and D and their differences are discussed. The results call attention to the possible harmful effect of vitamin treatments during the perinatal critical period.

Effect of starvation on insulin production and insulin binding in Tetrahymena

Tetrahymena pyriformis GL was starved for 24 h and then the immunologically demonstrable insulin content and FITC-insulin binding were measured by flow cytometry and localization was studied by confocal microscopy. The amount of endogeneous insulin as well as FITC insulin binding, was highly significantly elevated. Glucose feeding for 30 min abolished the elevation of FITC-insulin binding. In starved cells, insulin-binding sites disappeared from the surface and FITC-insulin was bound inside the cells, within large food vacuoles. Endogeneous insulin was dispersed in the cytoplasm both in the control and starved cells and food vacuoles did not contain it. The results call attention to the stimulatory effect of starvation on insulin production in Tetrahymena, in parallel with the internal storage of insulin receptors, which points to an autocrine mechanism.

Effects of extremely low concentrations of hormones on the insulin binding of Tetrahymena

FITC-insulin binding to previously hormone-treated Tetrahymena was studied by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Hormones produced by Tetrahymena were chosen for study and the hormone concentrations were administered between 10(-6) and 10(-21)M for 30 min. Endorphin, serotonin and insulin significantly reduced the hormone binding however histamine did not influence it at all. Endorphin, serotonin and insulin were significantly effective down to 10(-18)M and the effect of insulin and endorphin suggest a similar mechanism. The results call attention to the efficacy of very low hormone concentrations, which can influence the hormone content (earlier experiments) and receptor binding capacity (present study) of a unicellular organism. This seems to be very important, as in wild (natural) conditions the dilution of signaling materials secreted by a water-living protozoan is very high. In addition, the results point to the selectivity of response, as not all of the hormones that deeply influence other physiological indices (e.g. histamine) have an effect on insulin content or insulin receptors.

Increased antigen presentation and Th1 polarization in genetically histamine-free mice

Histamine is a well-known inflammatory mediator exerting various immunomodulatory effects and affecting the development of antigen-specific immune responses. Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most potent antigen-presenting cells specialized for capture, uptake, transport, processing and presentation of antigens to T cells. Using a genetically histamine-free [histidine decarboxylase knockout (HDC-/-)] mouse model, we examined the effects of histamine on DC-mediated antigen presentation. Applying an in vitro antigen presentation assay, we found that spleen DCs, derived from HDC-/- mice, display a higher efficiency in antigen presentation compared with wild-type cells. Flow cytometric characterization of DCs disclosed that this difference was not due to an altered distribution of DCs between or within the major functional sub-populations (assessed by CD11b and CD4 as myeloid and CD8alpha and DEC205 as lymphoid DC markers) or major changes in the co-stimulatory molecule profile (CD40, CD80, CD86). However, real-time PCR analysis of in vivo CFA-induced IL-12p35, IFNgamma, IL-10 and IL-4 expression showed that DCs matured in a histamine-free environment exhibit significantly elevated levels of IL-12p35 and IFNgamma mRNA. In vitro investigations confirmed that isolated DCs, developed in the absence of histamine, exhibit indeed a predominantly T(h)1-polarized cytokine pattern, as they show elevated levels of IFNgamma mRNA upon LPS stimulation. Similar difference was found at the protein level by ELISA, as well. Our study demonstrates that histamine interferes with antigen presentation and alters the cytokine profile of DCs.

How does the unicellular Tetrahymena utilise the hormones that it produces? Paying a visit to the realm of atto-and zeptomolar concentrations

Changes in the hormone content of Tetrahymena pyriformis GL were investigated during histamine, serotonin or insulin treatment at concentrations of 10(-6)M to 10(-21)M for 30 min. The immunologically demonstrable hormone content was studied by using specific antibodies, flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Histamine at the higher ranges elevated the serotonin content of Tetrahymena, whereas serotonin at the lower ranges (down to 10(-21)M) decreased its histamine levels. Insulin did not affect its serotonin content, whereas serotonin increased its insulin content at each concentration studied (down to 10(-21)M). Insulin between 10(-6)M and 10(-21)M increased the histamine levels of Tetrahymena, although histamine influenced its insulin level only at 10(-6)M. Our results call attention to the presence of hormonal interactions even at "low" levels of phylogeny and to the extreme sensitivity of the hormone receptors of Tetrahymena. These data might explain (1) the requirement of Tetrahymena for (vertebrate) hormone production and hormone receptors and (2) the way that it uses these hormones under natural conditions.

Influence of paraformaldehyde and EDAC fixation on the demonstrability of hormones (histamine, endorphin, triiodothyronine) in rat immune cells: An immunocytochemical comparative analysis

The amount and localization of three hormones (histamine, endorphin and triiodothyronine [T(3)]) was measured in male and female rat peritoneal cells (lymphocytes, mast cells, monocyte-macrophage-granulocyte group [mo-gran]) using flow cytometry as well as confocal microscopy after paraformaldehyde (PFA) or EDAC fixation. In the EDAC fixed lymphocytes and mo-gran of female animals two-magnitude higher levels of histamine were measured after EDAC fixation and one magitude higher in mast cells. The amount of T(3) was almost four-fold in lymphocytes and 2.5-4-fold in mast cells and mo-gran. Endorphin content was not altered by the type of fixation. In each cell type in males one magnitude higher levels of histamine and T(3) were measured after EDAC fixation and a small, but significant, elevation of endorphin. Confocal microscopy supports the quantitative data. The results show that (1) the fixation with the crosslinking molecule, EDAC, is more suitable for immunocytochemical studies of amino-acid type hormones in immune cells, (2) more histamine and T(3) are present in the immune cells than it was supposed previously when studying PFA-fixed preparations, (3) the estimation of the amount of peptide hormones seems to be accurate after PFA fixation, (4) there is a quantitative difference comparing the results of PFA and EDAC fixation between males and females.

Histamine regulates placental cytokine expression--in vivo study on HDC knockout mice

Successful pregnancy is closely related to polarization toward a Th2 type immune response. As histamine is known to initiate Th2 dominance during inflammatory processes we raised the question whether histamine has any effect on the actual tuning of proper cytokine balance for the proceeding of the gestation. Histamine has multiple functions in the process of pregnancy, different studies have shown the direct and/or indirect presence of histamine action in the placenta as well. As HDC is the unique histamine producing enzyme in eukaryotes, we used HDC (so endogenous histamine)-deficient knockout mice as reliable model for studying histamine-related processes in vivo. We examined the placental histamine content and the expression of histamine receptors and Th1/Th2/Th3 type cytokines in the placenta. We showed for the first time the influence of histamine on the orchestrated regulation of placental cytokine expression. In the absence of local histamine the cytokine balance is shifted toward Th1 types at the maternal-placental interface, threatening pregnancy. We also measured splenic lymphocyte subpopulation ratios in pregnant and non-pregnant mice and found that in pregnancy they are independent of the presence of histamine.

EDAC fixation increases the demonstrability of biogenic amines in the unicellular Tetrahymena: A flow cytometric and confocal microscopic comparative analysis

Earlier experiments demonstrated the presence of hormones of the higher ranked animals in Tetrahymena. In the present experiments two fixatives, paraformaldehyde, which is commonly used and a carbodiimide, EDAC that was recommended by Panula et al. for the immunocytochemistry of histamine, are compared in Tetrahymena for the demonstration of histamine and serotonin by using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Both hormone levels were significantly higher after EDAC fixation; serotonin almost doubled and histamine was more than fivefold. The confocal microscopic pictures were clearer and the hormones' localization was easier. The results support earlier observations on the presence of these hormones in Tetrahymena and points to the advantage of EDAC fixation for demonstrating these hormones immunocytochemically.

Influence of in vitro and in vivo insulin treatment on the hormone (histamine, serotonin, endorphin and triiodothyronine) content of thymus and spleen cells

Thymic and spleen cells were treated in vitro or in vivo with insulin. The in vitro treatments were done with 10(-6), 10(-9), 10(-12) and 10(-15) M concentrations for 30 min and after that histamine, serotonin, endorphin and triiodothyronine (T3) content of the cells were detected by using antibodies to the hormones and flow cytometry as well as confocal microscopy. For in vivo treatment 1 IU/kg insulin was given for adult rats and 1 h after that the target hormone contents were determined by the same manner. Histamine and T3 content radically decreased in the thymus after in vitro treatment independent on the insulin concentrations administered. In vivo treatment halved histamine and T3 content. Serotonin content also decreased after in vitro treatment with the two higher concentrations, however the in vivo treatment did not cause a change. Histamine content was elevated after in vitro treatment in the spleen, independent on the insulin concentration. Endorphin level was not influenced at all. The experiments demonstrate that insulin is a factor which regulates the content (production, storage, secretion?) of some immunologically important molecules of the immune cells. Since each hormone molecule studied has important immunomodulatory role, the experiment points to the indirect immunomodulatory role of insulin.

Changes in the endorphin and serotonin content of rat immune cells during adulthood following maternal exposure to ethanol during pregnancy and lactation

Lactating and lactating/pregnant rat dams consumed either 3% (vol/vol) ethanol (as the sole source of fluid) between the 1st and 21st days after delivery or 15% (vol/vol) ethanol for 24h on the 3rd day after delivery. Offspring of ethanol-consuming dams were compared with offspring of untreated control dams. In other groups, offspring of mothers given 3% ethanol during pregnancy were also compared to untreated controls. When the offspring were 2 months of age, endorphin and serotonin contents of immune cells (lymphocytes, granulocytes and monocytes, mast cells of the peritoneal fluid, and lymphocytes of the thymus) were determined by hormone-specific antibodies and flow cytometric as well as confocal microscopic analysis. In rats exposed to ethanol through breast-feeding, endorphin content significantly decreased in thymic cells independent of the alcohol concentration (and duration) during treatment. Each type of peritoneal cell contained significantly more serotonin after 3% alcohol treatment. For the prenatally exposed offspring, serotonin content significantly decreased for both ethanol treatment conditions during pregnancy. Remarkably, one day of exposure to 15% ethanol on the third day of pregnancy was sufficient to induce this enduring change in serotonin content of immune cells of offspring. Considering that endorphin and serotonin are important immunomodulators, these alcohol-induced changes could produce enduring influences on immune function.

Increased interferon-gamma- and interleukin-4-synthesizing subsets of circulating T lymphocytes in pregnant asthmatics

BACKGROUND

Pregnancy frequently interferes with the course of bronchial asthma, and asthmatic pregnant women experience less successful pregnancies. T lymphocytes synthesizing IL-4 or IFN-gamma are important in allergic mechanisms of the airways as well as in materno-fetal immunity.

OBJECTIVE

We hypothesized that pregnancy (a T helper-2 polarized state) of asthmatics will enhance the number of circulating T2 lymphocytes, but decrease the subset-producing IFN-gamma (T1 lymphocytes) and thereby cause a culminating T2 dominance with possible clinical consequences.

METHODS

IL-4- or IFN-gamma-producing T lymphocytes were determined by flow cytometry in healthy (n=8) and asthmatic (n=13) non-pregnant women and healthy (n=18) and asthmatic (n=48) pregnant women of similar chronological and gestational (2nd-3rd trimester) age and asthma severity (Global Initiative for Asthma II-III).

RESULTS

In the blood of non-pregnant women--healthy or asthmatic--the numbers of IL-4- and IFN-gamma+ T cells were very low (<10/microL blood). In contrast, in asthmatic pregnant women, the cell counts were 182+/-27 and 39+/-6 for IFN-gamma+ and IL-4+ T cells/microL blood, respectively (both P<0.05 vs. respective control values of non-pregnant asthmatics). Within the asthmatic pregnant group, significant negative correlations were revealed between the numbers of IFN-gamma+ or IL-4+ T cells and maternal peak expiratory flow as well as birth weight of newborns (both P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

These data show a previously unknown immunological interference between asthma and pregnancy. The culminating proliferation of IFN-gamma+ and IL-4+ T lymphocytes may potentially impair maternal airway symptoms as well as fetal development.

Alcohol consumption during gestation reduces the histamine and triiodothyronine content of rat immune cells

OBJECTIVE

Different factors acting during pregnancy can cause non-morphological alterations of cells which are manifested later, in adulthood. We studied the effect of maternal alcohol consumption for one day in early pregnancy on the hormone content of immune cells in the adult rat.

METHODS

Lactating dams were given 15% ethanol in the drinking water for 24 h on the 3rd day post partum, exposing their pups to ethanol in the breast milk. Some of the same dams had been successfully mated on the day of delivery, so that they were also 3 days pregnant on the treatment day, exposing embryos to alcohol on the third day of pregnancy. In 4 month old pups histamine and triiodothyronine (T(3)) content of citrate elicited peritoneal immune cells (lymphocytes, monocyte-macrophage-granulocyte group, mast cells) as well as thymic cells were determined by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy using specific antibodies.

RESULTS

Alcohol treatment during pregnancy decreased highly significantly the content of both hormones in peritoneal cells of the 4 month old adult animals while it was ineffective by breast feeding after birth. Thymic cells did not show any changes.

CONCLUSION

Since the immune system had not developed at the time of treatment (3rd day of pregnancy), stem cells were presumably imprinted. Our results indicate the deleterious effects of early maternal alcohol consumption on the hormone content of the immune system.

Prolonged effect of endorphin treatment during pregnancy in the rat on the histamine content of immune cells of F1 and F2 offspring generations

Female rats were treated with beta-endorphin on the 19th day of pregnancy and the histamine content of immune cells (blood lymphocytes; peritoneal lymphocytes, monocyte-macrophage-granulocyte group, mast cells; thymic lymphocytes) of the 7-week-old progenies (F1 generation) was studied using a flow-cytometric immunocytochemical technique. In an other group, female F1 progenies of endorphin-treated mothers were mated with control males and the F2 generation was monitored for histamine content similar to the F1. In the F1 generation each cell type, except peritoneal and blood lymphocytes, contained significantly more histamine than the control cells. In the F2 generation only mast cells contained significantly more histamine relative to the appropriate control. This means that the effect of endorphin (hormonal) imprinting is transmitted transgenerationally, but with decreasing intensity however. Mast cells retained the effect of imprinting for longer than the other cells. The results are compared with the levels of serotonin in similarly treated animals, studied in earlier experiments. As the endorphin level can be elevated during pregnancy (by pain, traumatization, or other stress conditions) this can the set biogenic amine content of adult immune cells.

Hormones in the nucleus. Immunologically demonstrable biogenic amines (serotonin, histamine) in the nucleus of rat peritoneal mast cells

Using 1-ethyl-3(3-dimethyl-aminopropyl)-carbodiimide (EDAC) fixation and immunocytochemical confocal microscopic study, bright serotonin and histamine fluorescence appeared in the nucleus of rat peritoneal mast cells. In case of paraformaldehyde fixation, this was not observed. The phenomenon can be explained by the cross-linking effect of EDAC, which did not allow the efflux of biogenic amines from the nucleus. This means that biogenic amines are present in the nucleus of mast cells, and this is supported by the flow cytometric measurement data of the whole cell. Other hormones studied (triiodothyronine, insulin, and endorphin) were not present in the nucleus. Four pharmaca with biogenic amine-influencing character in the central nervous system were used for studying the relation between the external (surrounding and cytoplasmic) and nuclear biogenic amine content of mast cells. Fluoxetine, a serotonin reuptake inhibitor depleted nuclear as well as cytoplasmic serotonin content. Clorgyline, a MAO-A inhibitor, decreased cytoplasmic serotonin content and weakened nuclear serotonin fluorescence. The tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor, para-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA), and the mast cell degranulator, Compound 48/80, reduced cytoplasmic serotonin content without influencing nuclear content. Histamine fluorescence was influenced solely by fluoxetine. The results show that nuclear 5-HT content is dependent firstly of serotonin uptake and reuptake. To our knowledge, this is the first exact report on the presence of non-steroid-type-receptor-transported hormones inside the nucleus of a cell.

Effect of a single early-gestational alcohol consumption on the insulin binding by immune cells of adult rats

Rat dams were exposed to 15% ethanol containing water ad libitum for 24 h at the 3rd day of gestation. Adult progenies' immune cells (peritoneal, blood and thymic lymphocytes, monocyte-macrophage-granulocyte group and mast cells) were studied by flow cytometry for binding of FITC-labelled insulin (compared to the appropriate cells of untreated animals). All of the cell types studied bound significantly less insulin, except mast cells. The results call attention to the life-long effect of occasional alcohol consumption in early pregnancy manifested in the immune system.

[The management of bronchial asthma during pregnancy--Hungarian experiences]

INTRODUCTION

The prevalence of bronchial asthma is 4-8% among pregnant women. The complications, which threaten the asthmatic pregnancies according to the literature, are the following: spontaneous abortion, diabetes mellitus, caesarean delivery, pre-eclampsia, low gestational weight, neonatal icterus.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was a retrospective analysis of the data of asthmatic pregnant patients managed between 2000 and 2004, with a special consideration on the treatment and gynecologic complications.

METHODS

The data of 53 persistent asthmatic patients--who had already undergone delivery--were collected. All of them were treated according to the guidelines issued in 2000 by the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: the inhalative corticosteroid budesonide, the long-acting beta-agonist formoterol or salmeterol and the short-acting beta-agonist terbutaline were used.

RESULTS

The mean peak expiratory flow of the asthmatic pregnant patients was 71 +/- 16% of predicted, and the mean partial arterial oxygen tension 96 +/- 9 mmHg (means +/- SE). 10 of the 53 patients had cesarean delivery, 3 developed pre-eclampsia, 1 diabetes mellitus. The mean gestational age was 38.84 +/- 2.17 weeks and the weight of newborns 3132 +/- 604 g. The hospitalization was prolonged due to the infants' hyperbilirubinaemia in 3 cases. No congenital malformations or spontaneous abortions were detected.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results of this retrospective study it can be concluded, that bronchial asthma slightly decreases the weight of newborns. The appropriate treatment of asthma during pregnancy resulted that the prevalence of gynecologic complications did not exceed the prevalence observed in the normal population--without increasing the risk of congenital malformations.

Prolonged effect of stress (water and food deprivation) at weaning or in adult age on the triiodothyronine and histamine content of immune cells

We used two days of total water and food deprivation as stress for female rats at weaning (three weeks old) and at adult age (two and a half months old). Triiodothyronine (T3) and histamine content of immune cells (lymphocytes, mast cells and monocyte-macrophage-granulocyte group in peritoneal fluid; lymphocytes, granulocytes and monocytes in blood; and lymphocytes in thymus) were studied three weeks after stress application using specific antibodies for flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The stress at weaning increased T3 content of thymus lymphocytes. In case of adult T3, there was a cell type independent significant effect of stress, decreasing values in peritoneal fluid and slightly increasing effect in the blood. Histamine content of granulocytes was also significantly elevated. The experiments demonstrate that not only fetal or neonatal stress has long-lasting consequences, but also stress events in later periods of life in cells (organs) that are continuously differentiating. We will go on to discuss the importance of T3 and histamine in connection with stress and immunity.