Pyrosequencing assessment of prokaryotic and eukaryotic diversity in biofilm communities from a French river

Despite the recent and significant increase in the study of aquatic microbial communities, little is known about the microbial diversity of complex ecosystems such as running waters. This study investigated the biodiversity of biofilm communities formed in a river with 454 Sequencing™. This river has the particularity of integrating both organic and microbiological pollution, as receiver of agricultural pollution in its upstream catchment area and urban pollution through discharges of the wastewater treatment plant of the town of Billom. Different regions of the small subunit (SSU) ribosomal RNA gene were targeted using nine pairs of primers, either universal or specific for bacteria, eukarya, or archaea. Our aim was to characterize the widest range of rDNA sequences using different sets of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers. A first look at reads abundance revealed that a large majority (47–48%) were rare sequences (<5 copies). Prokaryotic phyla represented the species richness, and eukaryotic phyla accounted for a small part. Among the prokaryotic phyla, Proteobacteria (beta and alpha) predominated, followed by Bacteroidetes together with a large number of nonaffiliated bacterial sequences. Bacillariophyta plastids were abundant. The remaining bacterial phyla, Verrucomicrobia and Cyanobacteria, made up the rest of the bulk biodiversity. The most abundant eukaryotic phyla were annelid worms, followed by Diatoms, and Chlorophytes. These latter phyla attest to the abundance of plastids and the importance of photosynthetic activity for the biofilm. These findings highlight the existence and plasticity of multiple trophic levels within these complex biological systems.

Characterization and evolution of natural aquatic biofilm communities exposed in vitro to herbicides

River biofilms are assemblies of autotrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms that can be affected by pollutants such as those found in watersheds and wastewater treatment plants. In the laboratory, experimental biofilms were formed from river water, and their overall composition was investigated. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and cytometry were used to assess the richness and diversity of these communities. The software Cytostack (available on request) was developed to treat and analyze the cytometric data. Measurements of chlorophyll-a and carotenoids were used to assess the global composition of the photoautotrophic community, whereas proteins, polysaccharides (PS) content, and esterase activities were used to assess overall changes in the mixed communities. We evaluated the effects that 3 weeks of treatment with the herbicides diuron and glyphosate (10 μg L(-1)) had on these biofilms. Exposed to diuron, bacterial communities adapted, changing their composition. Glyphosate inhibited growth of one autotrophic community but caused no chlorophyll deficit. As a whole, the biofilm acted as a micro-ecosystem, able to regulate and maintain a constant level of photosynthetic pigment through the structural adaptation of the autotrophic community. These results are one more proof that microbial diversity of aquatic biofilms is influenced by chemical stresses, potentially leading to disturbances within the ecosystems.

[Morphological variations of the nuclear apparatus of astome ciliates Almophrya bivacuolata and A. maediovacuolata (protozoa: ciliophora) endocommensal of terricolous oligochaetes in Cameroon]

The silver impregnation supplemented by DAPI and Feulgen nuclear coloration enabled us to study the morphological variations of the nuclear apparatus of two species of endocommensal Astome ciliates, Almophrya bivacuoloata (de Puytorac & Dragesco, 1968) and A. mediovocuolata (Ngassam, 1983). We highlighted important digitations and the presence of dark bands in the structure of the "H" macronucleus of the small cellular types as well as the presence of intermediate forms between "H" and "X" in these two species.

Cross-study analysis of genomic data defines the ciliate multigenic epiplasmin family: strategies for functional analysis in Paramecium tetraurelia

Background

The sub-membranous skeleton of the ciliate Paramecium, the epiplasm, is composed of hundreds of epiplasmic scales centered on basal bodies, and presents a complex set of proteins, epiplasmins, which belong to a multigenic family. The repeated duplications observed in the P. tetraurelia genome present an interesting model of the organization and evolution of a multigenic family within a single cell.

Results

To study this multigenic family, we used phylogenetic, structural, and analytical transcriptional approaches. The phylogenetic method defines 5 groups of epiplasmins in the multigenic family. A refined analysis by Hydrophobic Cluster Analysis (HCA) identifies structural characteristics of 51 epiplasmins, defining five separate groups, and three classes. Depending on the sequential arrangement of their structural domains, the epiplasmins are defined as symmetric, asymmetric or atypical. The EST data aid in this classification, in the identification of putative regulating sequences such as TATA or CAAT boxes. When specific RNAi experiments were conducted using sequences from either symmetric or asymmetric classes, phenotypes were drastic. Local effects show either disrupted or ill-shaped epiplasmic scales. In either case, this results in aborted cell division.

Using structural features, we show that 4 epiplasmins are also present in another ciliate, Tetrahymena thermophila. Their affiliation with the distinctive structural groups of Paramecium epiplasmins demonstrates an interspecific multigenic family.

Conclusion

The epiplasmin multigenic family illustrates the history of genomic duplication in Paramecium. This study provides a framework which can guide functional analysis of epiplasmins, the major components of the membrane skeleton in ciliates. We show that this set of proteins handles an important developmental information in Paramecium since maintenance of epiplasm organization is crucial for cell morphogenesis.

Identification of a new protein in the centrosome-like "atractophore" of Trichomonas vaginalis

The human parasite Trichomonas vaginalis has specific structural bodies, atractophores, associated at one end to the kinetosomes and at the other to the spindle during division. A monoclonal antibody specific for a component of this structure was obtained. It recognizes a protein with a predicted molecular mass of 477 kDa. Sequence analysis of this protein shows that P477 belongs to the family of large coiled-coil proteins, sharing a highly versatile protein folding motif adaptable to many biological functions. P477-might act as an anchor to localize cellular activities and components to the golgi centrosomal region. It may represent a new class of structural proteins, since similar proteins were found in many protozoans.

The Membrane Skeleton in Paramecium: Molecular Characterization of a Novel Epiplasmin Family and Preliminary GFP Expression Results

Previous attempts to identify the membrane skeleton of Paramecium cells have revealed a protein pattern that is both complex and specific. The most prominent structural elements, epiplasmic scales, are centered around ciliary units and are closely apposed to the cytoplasmic side of the inner alveolar membrane. We sought to characterize epiplasmic scale proteins (epiplasmins) at the molecular level. PCR approaches enabled the cloning and sequencing of two closely related genes by amplifications of sequences from a macronuclear genomic library. Using these two genes (EPI-1 and EPI-2), we have contributed to the annotation of the Paramecium tetraurelia macronuclear genome and identified 39 additional (paralogous) sequences. Two orthologous sequences were found in the Tetrahymena thermophila genome. Structural analysis of the 43 sequences indicates that the hallmark of this new multigenic family is a 79 aa domain flanked by two Q-, P- and V-rich stretches of sequence that are much more variable in amino-acid composition. Such features clearly distinguish members of the multigenic family from epiplasmic proteins previously sequenced in other ciliates. The expression of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)-tagged epiplasmin showed significant labeling of epiplasmic scales as well as oral structures. We expect that the GFP construct described herein will prove to be a useful tool for comparative subcellular localization of different putative epiplasmins in Paramecium.

Fine oral filaments in Paramecium: a biochemical and immunological analysis

In Paramecium, several kinds of the oral networks of fine filaments are defined at the ultrastructural level. Using the sodium chloride-treated oral apparatus of Paramecium as an antigen to produce monoclonal antibodies, we have begun to identify the proteins constituting these networks. Immunoblotting showed that all positive antibodies were directed against three bands (70-, 75-and 83-kD), which corresponded to quantitatively minor components of the antigen; there was no antibody specific for the quantitatively major components (58- and 62-kD). Immunolocalization with four of these antibodies directed against one or several of these three bands showed that these proteins are components of the fine filaments supporting the oral area; a decoration of the basal bodies and the outer lattice was also observed on the cortex. Immunofluorescence on interphase cells suggested that the three proteins colocalized on the left side of the oral apparatus, whereas only the 70-kD band was detected on the right side. During division, the antigens of the antibodies were detected at different stages after oral basal body assembly. The antibodies cross-reacted with the tetrins, which are oral filament-forming proteins in Tetrahymena, demonstrating that tetrin-related proteins are quantitatively minor components of the oral and the somatic cytoskeleton of Paramecium.

Characterization, cloning and immunolocalization of a coronin homologue in Trichomonas vaginalis

On adhesion to host cells the flagellate Trichomonas vaginalis switches to an amoeboid form rich in actin microfilaments. We have undertaken the identification of actin-associated proteins that regulate actin dynamics. A monoclonal antibody 4C12 raised against a cytoskeletal fraction of T. vaginalis labeled a protein doublet at circa 50 kDa. These two bands were recognized by the antibody against Dictyostelium discoideum coronin. During cell extraction and actin polymerization, T. vaginalis coronin cosedimented with F-actin. By two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the protein doublet was separated into two sets of isoforms covering two Ip zones around 6 and 7. By screening a T. vaginalis library with 4C12, two clones Cor 1 and Cor 2 were isolated. This gene duplicity is a particularity among unicellular organisms examined. The complete sequence of the gene Cor 1 encodes a 435-residue protein with a calculated molecular mass of 48 kDa and Ip of 5.58. The incomplete sequence Cor 2 was very similar but with a more basic calculated Ip than Cor 1 on the same region. T. vaginalis coronin had 50% similarity with the coronin family, possessing the five WD-repeats and a leucine zipper in its C-terminal part. Double immunofluorescence labeling showed that coronin mainly colocalized with actin at the periphery of the adherent amoeboid cells. However, coronin labeling displayed patches within a reticular array. Immunogold electron microscopy confirmed the coronin labeling in the actin-rich microfilamentous fringe beneath the plasma membrane, with accumulation in phagocytic zones and pseudopodial extensions. In T. vaginalis, one of the first emerging lineage of eukaryotes, coronin seems to play an important role in actin dynamics and may be a downstream target of a signaling mechanism for the cytoskeleton reorganization.

Centrin protein and genes in Trichomonas vaginalis and close relatives

Anti-centrin monoclonal antibodies 20H5 and 11B2 produced against Clamydomononas centrin decorated the group of basal bodies as well as very closely attached structures in all trichomonads studied and in the devescovinids Foaina and Devescovina. Moreover, these antibodies decorated the undulating membrane in Trichomonas vaginalis, Trichomitus batrachorum, and Tritrichomonas foetus, and the cresta in Foaina. Centrin was not demonstrated in the dividing spindle and paradesmosis. Immunogold labeling, both in pre- and post-embedding, confirmed that centrin is associated with the basal body cylinder and is a component of the nine anchoring arms between the terminal plate of flagellar bases and the plasma-membrane. Centrin is also associated with the hook-shaped fibers attached to basal bodies (F1, F3), the X-fiber, and along sigmoid fibers (F2) at the pelta-axostyle junction, which is the microtubule organizing center for pelta-axostyle microtubules. There was no labeling on the striated costa and parabasal fibers nor on microtubular pelta-axostyle, but the fibrous structure inside the undulating membrane was labeled in T. vaginalis. Two proteins of 22-20 kDa corresponding to the centrin molecular mass were recognized by immunoblotting using these antibodies in the three trichomonad species examined. By screening a T. vaginalis cDNA library with 20H5 antibody, two genes encoding identical protein sequences were found. The sequence comprises the 4 typical EF-hand Ca++-binding domains present in every known centrin. Trichomonad centrin is closer to the green algal cluster (70% identity) than to the yeast Cdc31 cluster (55% identity) or the Alveolata cluster (46% identity).

Immunolocalization of two hydrogenosomal enzymes of Trichomonas vaginalis

Three monoclonal antibodies specific for malic enzyme and for the alpha- and beta-subunits, respectively, of the succinyl-coenzyme A (CoA) synthetase of Trichomonas vaginalis were used to immunolocalize these proteins in the cell. All antibodies labeled the hydrogenosome matrix as determined both by immunofluorescence and by immunogold staining. There was no labeling on the cell surface or in any other cell compartment. These results support the idea that these proteins are restricted to a hydrogenosomal function and do not play a role as adhesins at the plasma membrane surface.

Evidence for an uncommon alpha-actinin protein in Trichomonas vaginalis

As part of our ongoing project of identification of actin-binding proteins implicated in the cell transition (flagellate to amoeboid/adherent) of Trichomonas vaginalis, we have characterized an alpha-actinin-related protein in this parasite. The protein (P100) has a molecular mass of 100 kDa and an isoelectric point of 5.5. A monoclonal antibody raised against this protein co-localizes with the actin network. P100 gene transcripts are co-expressed with actin throughout the cell cycle. Analysis of the deduced protein sequence reveals three domains: an N-terminal actin-binding region; a central region rich in alpha-helix; and a C-terminal domain with Ca(2+)-binding capacity. Whereas the N- and C-terminal regions are well-conserved as compared to other alpha-actinins, we observe in the central region an atypical distribution of residues in five repeats. The sequence of the repeats does not show any homology with the rod domain of the other alpha-actinins, except for the first repeat which shows some similarity. The four other repeats of T. vaginalis P100 appear to result from a duplication event which is not detectable in the other sequences.

Distribution of a centrosomal antigen during morphogenesis in the ciliated protozoan Euplotes

Ciliates assemble basal bodies in great number at many stages of the life-cycle. In order to understand their assembly mechanisms, we screened a library of monoclonal antibodies directed against pericentriolar material. One of these antibodies, CTR210, was used previously to follow steps of this assembly process: in Paraurostyla, new basal bodies appear along a scaffold of linear structures recognized by this antibody. The very unusual behavior of this antigen deserved confirmation in other species. In the present study, we show by immunofluorescence that, in another phylogenetically very distant species, Euplotes, basal bodies are assembled in the same pathway during division. In addition, this antibody recognizes a filamentous ring located at the division furrow and linking many basal body assemblages. By cell fractionation and cytoskeletal extraction, we obtained fractions enriched in basal bodies and associated material. Such fractions still display a high complexity in protein composition. These fractions were used to characterize the main target of the antibody as a doublet of 45 kDa. These results confirm previous results in terms of functionality of the protein recognized by the antibody, but raise new questions in terms of the assignment of the recognized protein to the HSP70 family as hypothesized previously.

Cold-treated centrosome: isolation of centrosomes from mitotic sea urchin eggs, production of an anticentrosomal antibody, and novel ultrastructural imaging

A novel isolation of centrosomes is described and it was used to both generate a centrosome-specific monoclonal antibody and to image with high-resolution low-voltage scanning electron microscopy the surface details of the isolated centrosome. At first mitotic prometaphase, sea urchin zygotes are chilled on ice overnight. While most of the microtubules disassemble, the mitotic centrosomes collapse into aggregated masses. These centrosomes have been isolated, and used to generate a monoclonal antibody, designated 4D2, which is reactive with interphase and mitotic centrosomes. 4D2 staining of centrosomes is similar, but not identical, to that of other centrosomal antibodies like Ah6 and 5051. Centrosomal material is detected as a compact sphere after cold treatment; upon recovery the sphere expands and undergoes the shape changes previously described [Mazia et al., 1987: J. Cell Biol. 105:206a] to eventually reorganize a normal mitotic apparatus.

Purification, in vitro reassembly, and preliminary sequence analysis of epiplasmins, the major constituent of the membrane skeleton of Paramecium

The epiplasmic layer, a continuous rigid granulo-fibrillar sheet directly subtending the surface membranes of Paramecium, is one of the outermost of the various cytoskeletal networks that compose it cortex. We have previously shown that the epiplasm consists of a set of 30 to 50 protein bands on SDS-PAGE in the range 50 to 33 kDa, the epiplasmins. We report a purification procedure for the set of epiplasmic proteins, a description of their physicochemical and reassembly properties, and a preliminary characterization of their sequence. The conditions for solubilization of the epiplasm and for in vitro reassembly of its purified constituents ar described. Reassembly of the entire set of proteins and of some (but not all) subsets are shown to yield filamentous aggregates. Microsequences of two purified bands of epiplasmins reveal a striking amino acid sequence consisting of heptad repeats of only three main amino acids, P, V, and Q. These repeats were confirmed by DNA sequencing of polymerase chain reaction products. The motif is QPVQ-h, in which h is a hydrophobic residue. This may constitute the core of the epiplasmin sequence and, in view of the tendency of such a sequence to form a coiled-coil, may account for the remarkable self-aggregation properties of epiplasmins.

Actin cytoskeleton demonstration in Trichomonas vaginalis and in other trichomonads

The flagellate form of Trichomonas vaginalis (T v) transforms to amoeboid cells upon adherence to converslips. They grow and their nuclei divide without undergoing cytokinesis, yielding giant cells and a monolayer of T v F-actin was demonstrated in Trichomonas vaginalis by fluorescence microscopy using phalloidin and an anti-actin mAb which labelled the cytoplasm of both the flagellate and amoeboid forms. Comparative electrophoresis and immunoblotting established that the actin band has the same 42 kDa as muscle actin, but 2-D electrophoresis resolved the actin band into four spots; the two major spots observed were superimposable with major muscle actin isoforms. Electron microscopy demonstrated an ectoplasmic microfibrillar layer along the adhesion zone of amoeboid T v adhering to coverslips. Immunogold staining, using anti-actin monoclonal antibodies demonstrated that this layer was mainly composed of actin microfilaments. A comparative immunoblotting study comprising seven trichomonad species showed that all trichomonads studied expressed actin. The mAb Sigma A-4700 specific for an epitope on the actin C-terminal sequence labelled only actin of Trichomonas vaginalis, Tetratrichomonas gallinarum. Trichomitus batrachorum and Hypotrichomonas acosta, but not the actin of Tritrichomonas foetus, Tritrichomonas augusta and Monocercomonas sp. This discrimination between a 'trichomonas branch' and a 'tritrichomonas branch' is congruent with inferred sequence phylogeny from SSu rRNA and with classical phylogeny of trichomonads.

Identification of the epiplasmins, a new set of cortical proteins of the membrane cytoskeleton in Paramecium

In most ciliates, the epiplasm, a superficial cytoskeletal layer of variable thickness, both surrounds basal bodies and interacts tightly with adjacent membrane networks; it constitutes the predominant structure in Paramecium cell ghosts. Previous indirect data suggested several cortical proteins as potential constituents of the epiplasm. New sharp monoclonal antibodies presented in this paper, positive both on immunotransfers and in immunocytochemical tests carried out on permeabilized cells and ultrathin sections, definitively identify the epiplasmins: a set of about twenty protein bands ranging from 45 to 33 kDa and making up the bulk of the epiplasmic layer. The complete epiplasmin pattern characterized from gradient-purified cortex is also present in unfractionated whole cells, confirming that the pattern is not generated artifactually. Comparative one-step extractions, performed either in 1 M KI or in 4 M urea, solubilize the epiplasmins as a whole, indicating that all of them share very similar biochemical properties. Two-dimensional electrophoresis shows the great complexity of this epiplasmin group. Epiplasmin solubilization properties are discussed with respect to other models of membrane-cytoskeleton interaction developed among protists and metazoans and also to intermediate filaments, specially lamins. Immunofluorescent labelling combined with confocal microscopy permits a more detailed study of epiplasm formation at the level of the fission furrow, with new insights into two successive steps of epiplasm growth. A first series of interspecific reactions has been carried out with one of the anti- epiplasmin antibodies, yielding results which are discussed in an evolutionary framework.

Association between microtubules and Golgi vesicles isolated from rat parotid glands

We report an isolation procedure of trans-Golgi vesicles (GVs) from rat parotid glands. Various organelle markers were used, particularly galactosyl transferase as a trans-Golgi marker, to test the purity of the GV fraction. A quantitative in vitro binding assay between microtubules and GVs is described. The vesicles were incubated with taxol-induced microtubules, layered between 50% and 43% sucrose cushions and subjected to centrifugation. Unlike free microtubules which were sedimented, the GV-bound microtubules co-migrated upward with GVs. Quantification of these bound microtubules was carried out by densitometric scanning of Coomassie blue-stained gels. The association between microtubules and GVs followed a saturation curve, with a plateau value of 20 micrograms of microtubule protein bound to 500 micrograms of GV fraction. The half-saturation of the GV sites was obtained with a microtubule concentration of 20 micrograms/ml. Electron microscopy of negatively stained re-floated material showed numerous microtubule-vesicle complexes. Coating of microtubules with an excess of brain microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) abolished binding. In the absence of exogenous microtubules, we showed that the GV fraction was already interacting with a class of endogenous rat parotid microtubules. This class of colcemid and cold-stable microtubules represents 10-20% of the total tubulin content of the parotid cell.

Centrosome detection in sea urchin eggs with a monoclonal antibody against Drosophila intermediate filament proteins: characterization of stages of the division cycle of centrosomes

A mouse monoclonal antibody generated against Drosophila intermediate filament proteins (designated Ah6/5/9 and referred to herein as Ah6) is found to cross-react specifically with centrosomes in sea urchin eggs and with a 68-kDa antigen in eggs and isolated mitotic apparatus. When preparations stained with Ah6 are counterstained with a human autoimmune serum whose anti-centrosome activity has been established, the immunofluorescence images superimpose exactly. A more severe test of the specificity of the antibody demands that it display all of the stages of the centrosome cycle in the cell cycle: the flattening and spreading of the compact centrosomes followed by their division and the establishment of two compact poles. The test was made by an experimental design that uses a period of exposure of the eggs to 2-mercaptoethanol. This treatment allows observation of the stages of the centrosome cycle--separation, division, and bipolarization--while the chromosomes are arrested in metaphase. Mitosis is arrested in the presence of 0.1 M 2-mercaptoethanol. Chromosomes remain in a metaphase configuration while the centrosomes divide, producing four poles perpendicular to the original spindle axis. Microtubules are still present in the mitotic apparatus, as indicated by immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy. When 2-mercaptoethanol is removed, the chromosomes reorient to the poles of a tetrapolar (sometimes tripolar) mitotic apparatus. During the following cycle, the blastomeres form a monopolar mitotic apparatus. The observations of the centrosome cycle with the Ah6 antibody display very clearly all the stages that have been seen or deduced from work with other probes. The 68-kDa antigen that reacts with the Ah6 monoclonal antibody to Drosophila intermediate filament proteins must be a constant component of sea urchin centrosomes because it is present at all stages of the centrosome cycle.

Gelation and fodrin purification from rat brain extracts

Extracts from rat brain tissue have been shown to give rise to a gel which exhibits the following features. It is mainly enriched in actin and in a high-molecular-weight protein with polypeptide chains of 235 and 240 kDa, which we identified as fodrin. Tubulin is also a major component of the gel but it appears to be trapped non-specifically during the gelation process. Gelation is pH-, ionic strength- and Ca2+-concentration-dependent, and is optimal under the conditions which promote the interaction between polymerized actin and fodrin. In a similar way to that described for the purification of rat brain actin (Levilliers, N., Péron-Renner, M., Coffe, G. and Pudles, J. (1984) Biochimie 66, 531-537), we used the gelation system as a selective means of recovering fodrin from the mixture of a low-ionic-strength extract from whole rat brain and a high-ionic-strength extract of the particulate fraction. From this gel, fodrin was purified with a good yield by a simple procedure involving gel dissociation in 0.5 M KCl and depolymerization in 0.7 M KI, Bio-Gel A-15m chromatography, followed by ammonium sulfate precipitation.

DNA synthesis and microtubule assembly-related events in fertilized Paracentrotus lividus eggs: reversible inhibition by 10 mM procaine

This report describes the effects of 10 mM procaine on microtubule assembly and on DNA synthesis, as followed by [3H]colchicine binding assays and [3H]thymidine incorporation respectively, in fertilized Paracentrotus lividus eggs. In the absence of microtubule assembly inhibitors, about 25% of the total egg tubulin is submitted to two cycles of polymerization prior to the first cell division, this polymerization process precedes DNA synthesis. If the zygotes are treated with 10 mM procaine in the course of the cell cycle, tubulin polymerization is inhibited or microtubules are disassembled. DNA synthesis is inhibited when procaine treatment is performed 10 min, before the initiation of the S-period. However, when the drug is applied in the course of this synthetic period, the process is normally accomplished, but the next S-period becomes inhibited. Moreover, procaine treatment increases the cytoplasmic pH of the fertilized eggs by about 0.6 to 0.8 pH units. This pH increase precedes microtubule disassembly and inhibition of DNA synthesis. Washing out the drug induces a decrease of the intracellular pH which returns to about the same value as that of the fertilized egg controls. This pH change is then followed by the reinitiation of microtubule assembly, DNA synthesis and cell division. Our results show that the inhibition of both tubulin polymerization and DNA synthesis in fertilized eggs treated with 10 mM procaine, appears to be related to the drug-induced increase in cytoplasmic pH.

A network of 2-4 nm filaments found in sea urchin smooth muscle. Protein constituents and in situ localization

In this report the coisolation of two proteins from sea urchin smooth muscle of apparent molecular weights (Mr) 54 and 56 kD respectively, as determined on SDS-PAGE, is described. Like the intermediate filament proteins, these two proteins are insoluble in high ionic strength buffer solution. On two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and by immunological methods it is shown that these proteins are not related (by these criteria) to rat smooth muscle desmin (54 kD) or vimentin (56 kD). Furthermore, in conditions where both desmin and vimentin assemble in vitro into 10 nm filaments, the sea urchin smooth muscle proteins do not assemble into filaments. Ultrastructural studies on the sea urchin smooth muscle cell show that the thin and thick filaments organization resembles that described in the vertebrate smooth muscle. However, instead of 10 nm filaments, a network of filaments, 2-4 nm in diameter, is revealed, upon removal of the thin and thick filaments by 0.6 M KCl treatment. By indirect immunofluorescence microscopy, and in particular by immunocytochemical electron microscopy studies on the sea urchin smooth muscle cell, it is shown that the antibodies raised against both 54 and 56 kD proteins appear to specifically label these 2-4 nm filaments. These findings indicate that both the 54 and 56 kD proteins might be constituents of this category of filaments. The possible significance of this new cytoskeletal element, that we have named echinonematin filaments, is discussed.

Dual effect of procaine in sea urchin eggs. Inducer and inhibitor of microtubule assembly

An increase in the amount of cytoplasmic filamentous structures (cytoplasmic matrix and aster) which were recovered after hexylene glycol/Triton X-100 treatment of sea urchin eggs (Paracentrotus lividus) activated by 0.2-2.5 mM procaine was observed. At higher activator concentrations, an opposite effect was observed and formation of these cytoplasmic structures was inhibited in the presence of 10 mM procaine. This inhibitory effect was reversed by diluting the drug in the incubation medium. DNase I inhibition assays on egg homogenates which were performed at different time points of the activation process, show that the same amount of actin was induced to polymerize in eggs activated either by 2.5 or 10 mM procaine. However, colchicine-binding assays on the 100 000 g particulate fractions of these homogenates show that in eggs activated by 10 mM procaine, in contrast to those activated by 2.5 mM, tubulin polymerization was inhibited and microtubules were disassembled. These results show that the dual effect of procaine in the organization of the egg cytoskeleton appears to be related to its effect on the state of tubulin.

[Study of a lysis medium stabilizing microfilaments and microtubules in vitro and in vivo]

Determination of experimental conditions which allow the evaluation of the variations in the ratio of non polymerized and polymerized forms of actin and tubulin during the reorganization of the cytoskeletal cell system is of most valuable importance. In order to prepare cell homogenates which would reflect the in vivo situation, we tested in vitro a lysis medium which stabilized both microfilaments and microtubules, which were determined by DNase inhibition assays and colchicine binding assays respectively. This lysis medium containing 10 mM potassium phosphate, 1mM magnesium chloride, 5 mM EGTA, 1 M hexylene glycol, 1% Triton X-100, pH 6.4, used at 4 degrees C a) diffused rapidly into the cells; b) did not denature actin and tubulin; c) did not displace the equilibrium between non polymerized and polymerized forms of actin and tubulin, allowing biochemical assays on cell homogenates; d) blocked the evolution of the cytoskeletal system and permitted structural studies; e) and allowed the decoration of microfilaments by heavy meromyosin.

Actin purification from a gel of rat brain extracts

Actin, 99% pure, has been recovered from rat brain with a high yield (greater than 15 mg/100 g brain). We have shown that: 1. a low ionic strength extract from rat brain tissue is capable of giving rise to a gel; 2. actin is the main gel component and its proportion is one order of magnitude higher than in the original extract; 3. actin can be isolated from this extract by a three-step procedure involving gelation, dissociation of the gel in 0.6 M KCl, followed by one or two depolymerization-polymerization cycles.

Tubulin dynamics during the cytoplasmic cohesiveness cycle in artificially activated sea urchin eggs

Sedimentation studies and [3H]colchicine-binding assays have demonstrated a relationship between the cytoplasmic cohesiveness cycles and the changes in tubulin organization in Paracentrotus lividus eggs activated by 2.5 mM procaine. The same amount of tubulin (20-25% of the total egg tubulin) is involved in these cyclic process and appears to undergo polymerization and depolymerization cycles. Electron microscopy studies reveal that the microtubules formed during these cytoplasmic cohesiveness cycles are under a particulate form which is sedimentable at low speed. Activation experiments carried out in the presence of cytochalasin B (CB) show that the increase in the cytoplasmic cohesiveness is highly reduced while tubulin polymerization and depolymerization cycles and pronuclear centration are not affected. Although tubulin or actin polymerization can be independently triggered in procaine-activated eggs, the increase in cytoplasmic cohesiveness requires the polymerization of both proteins. However, the cytoplasmic cohesiveness cycles appear to be regulated by tubulin polymerization and depolymerization cycles.

Effects of tertiary amine local anesthetics on the assembly and disassembly of brain microtubules in vitro

From kinetic and electron microscopy studies on the effects of procaine, tetracaine and dibucaine on the polymerization and depolymerization of the microtubules isolated from pig and rat brains the following results were obtained. 1. Procaine or tetracaine, at the concentration range of 0.5--20 mM and of 0.5--5 mM respectively, increases the rate of tubulin polymerization (24 degrees C or 37 degrees C) and of microtubule depolymerization (4 degrees C) as a linear function of the concentration of the anesthetics, while identical amounts of microtubules are formed. In the absence of microtubule-associated proteins the polymerization of tubulin is not induced by 10 mM procaine, furthermore, the critical concentration of microtubule proteins necessary for assembly into microtubules is not affected at this concentration level of the anesthetic. This suggests that procaine affects not the nucleation, but rather the elongation process. 2. Dibucaine, from 0.5 mM to 3 mM increases the lag time of the polymerization reaction, while from 0.5 mM to 2 mM it linearly decreases both tubulin polymerization (24 degrees C) and microtubule depolymerization (4 degrees C) rates. Dibucaine, up to mM concentration, does not affect the extent of tubulin polymerization; however, above this concentration it induces the formation of amorphous aggregates. 3. Procaine or tetracaine enhances the depolymerizing effect of calcium on microtubules. The half-maximal values for the depolymerizing effect of calcium were 0.96, 0.71 and 0.51 mM for the control, in the presence of 10 mM procaine and 5 mM tetracaine respectively.