Garbage Laws and Symbolic Policy: Governmental Responses to the Problem of Waste in the United States

The purpose of this paper is to examine governmental responses to the environmental problem of waste in the United States. The main thesis of this paper contends that environmental laws, particularly those concerned with addressing the problem of waste, are symbolic exercises because they reaffirm the ideological commitments of the industrial-consumer process, commitments that fail to recognize basic principles of ecology and stir the problem of waste in the first instance. The thesis that garbage laws are mainly symbolic exercises is elaborated in the following manner. First, drawing from the work of other scholars who have invoked the notion of symbolic law, the chief characteristics of the concept are iden tified. Having framed the concept of symbolic law, three ideological com mitments of the industrial-consumer process — belief in human domina tion of nature, creativity as a moral pursuit, and linearity of thought - are described. These ideological commitments contribute directly to the problem of waste through the championing of unadulterated consump tion. Noting some ecological challenges raised by garbage and waste dis posal to these ideological commitments, the next section relates some basic principles of ecology that would serve well as the underpinnings for environmental policy. An examination of the federal government's Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 as well as New York State's Solid Waste Management Act of 1988 confirms, however, that governmental responses to the problem of waste fail to slip free of indus trial-consumer ideological commitments. After assessing the response articulated by these two pieces of legislation, the paper concludes with some observations on symbolic law and environmental problems and with a few suggestions for informing our environmental policy with eco logical principles.

Chemical alternatives assessment: the case of flame retardants

Decisions on chemical substitution are made rapidly and by many stakeholders; these decisions may have a direct impact on consumer exposures, and, when a hazard exists, to consumer risks. Flame retardants (FRs) represent particular challenges, including very high production volumes, designed-in persistence, and often direct consumer exposure. Newer FR products, as with other industrial chemicals, typically lack data on hazard and exposure, and in many cases even basic information on structure and use in products is unknown. Chemical alternatives assessment (CAA) provides a hazard-focused approach to distinguishing between possible substitutions; variations on this process are used by several government and numerous corporate entities. By grouping chemicals according to functional use, some information on exposure potential can be inferred, allowing for decisions based on those hazard properties that are most distinguishing. This approach can help prevent the "regrettable substitution" of one chemical with another of equal, or even higher, risk.

Contrasting theories of interaction in epidemiology and toxicology

BACKGROUND

Epidemiologists and toxicologists face similar problems when assessing interactions between exposures, yet they approach the question very differently. The epidemiologic definition of "interaction" leads to the additivity of risk differences (RDA) as the fundamental criterion for causal inference about biological interactions. Toxicologists define "interaction" as departure from a model based on mode of action: concentration addition (CA; for similarly acting compounds) or independent action (IA; for compounds that act differently).

OBJECTIVES

We compared and contrasted theoretical frameworks for interaction in the two fields.

METHODS

The same simple thought experiment has been used in both both epidemiology and toxicology to develop the definition of "noninteraction," with nearly opposite interpretations. In epidemiology, the "sham combination" leads to a requirement that noninteractive dose-response curves be linear, whereas in toxicology, it results in the model of CA. We applied epidemiologic tools to mathematical models of concentration-additive combinations to evaluate their utility.

RESULTS

RDA is equivalent to CA only for linear dose-response curves. Simple models demonstrate that concentration-additive combinations can result in strong synergy or antagonism in the epidemiologic framework at even the lowest exposure levels. For combinations acting through nonsimilar pathways, RDA approximates IA at low effect levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Epidemiologists have argued for a single logically consistent definition of interaction, but the toxicologic perspective would consider this approach less biologically informative than a comparison with CA or IA. We suggest methods for analysis of concentration-additive epidemiologic data. The two fields can learn a great deal about interaction from each other.

Generalized concentration addition predicts joint effects of aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonists with partial agonists and competitive antagonists

BACKGROUND

Predicting the expected outcome of a combination exposure is critical to risk -assessment. The toxic equivalency factor (TEF) approach used for analyzing joint effects of dioxin-like chemicals is a special case of the method of concentration addition. However, the TEF method assumes that individual agents are full aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonists with parallel dose-response curves, whereas many mixtures include partial agonists.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the ability of generalized concentration addition (GCA) to predict effects of combinations of full AhR agonists with partial agonists or competitive antagonists.

METHODS

We measured activation of AhR-dependent gene expression in H1G1.1c3 cells after application of binary combinations of AhR ligands. A full agonist (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p--dioxin or 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran) was combined with either a full agonist (3,3 ,4,4 ,5-penta-chloro-biphenyl), a partial agonist (2,3,3 ,4,4 -pentachlorobiphenyl or galangin), or an antagonist (3,3 -diindolylmethane). Combination effects were modeled by the TEF and GCA approaches, and goodness of fit of the modeled response surface to the experimental data was assessed using a nonparametric statistical test.

RESULTS

The GCA and TEF models fit the experimental data equally well for a mixture of two full agonists. In all other cases, GCA fit the experimental data significantly better than the TEF model.

CONCLUSIONS

The TEF model overpredicts effects of AhR ligands at the highest concentration combinations. At lower concentrations, the difference between GCA and TEF approaches depends on the efficacy of the partial agonist. GCA represents a more accurate definition of additivity for mixtures that include partial agonist or competitive antagonist ligands.

Geocoding rural addresses in a community contaminated by PFOA: a comparison of methods

BACKGROUND

Location is often an important component of exposure assessment, and positional errors in geocoding may result in exposure misclassification. In rural areas, successful geocoding to a street address is limited by rural route boxes. Communities have assigned physical street addresses to rural route boxes as part of E911 readdressing projects for improved emergency response. Our study compared automated and E911 methods for recovering and geocoding valid street addresses and assessed the impact of positional errors on exposure classification.

METHODS

The current study is a secondary analysis of existing data that included 135 addresses self-reported by participants of a rural community study who were exposed via public drinking water to perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) released from a DuPont facility in Parkersburg, West Virginia. We converted pre-E911 to post-E911 addresses using two methods: automated ZP4 address-correction software with the U.S. Postal Service LACS database and E911 data provided by Wood County, West Virginia. Addresses were geocoded using TeleAtlas, an online commercial service, and ArcView with StreetMap Premium North America NAVTEQ 2008 enhanced street dataset. We calculated positional errors using GPS measurements collected at each address and assessed exposure based on geocoded location in relation to public water pipes.

RESULTS

The county E911 data converted 89% of the eligible addresses compared to 35% by ZP4 LACS. ArcView/NAVTEQ geocoded more addresses (n = 130) and with smaller median distance between geocodes and GPS coordinates (39 meters) than TeleAtlas (n = 85, 188 meters). Without E911 address conversion, 25% of the geocodes would have been more than 1000 meters from the true location. Positional errors in TeleAtlas geocoding resulted in exposure misclassification of seven addresses whereas ArcView/NAVTEQ methods did not misclassify any addresses.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the study was limited by small numbers, our results suggest that the use of county E911 data in rural areas increases the rate of successful geocoding. Furthermore, positional accuracy of rural addresses in the study area appears to vary by geocoding method. In a large epidemiological study investigating the health effects of PFOA-contaminated public drinking water, this could potentially result in exposure misclassification if addresses are incorrectly geocoded to a street segment not serviced by public water.

Generalized concentration addition: a method for examining mixtures containing partial agonists

Environmentally relevant toxic exposures often consist of simultaneous exposure to multiple agents. Methods to predict the expected outcome of such combinations are critical both to risk assessment and to an accurate judgment of whether combinations are synergistic or antagonistic. Concentration addition (CA) has commonly been used to assess the presence of synergy or antagonism in combinations of similarly acting chemicals, and to predict effects of combinations of such agents. CA has the advantage of clear graphical interpretation: Curves of constant joint effect (isoboles) must be negatively sloped straight lines if the mixture is concentration additive. However, CA cannot be directly used to assess combinations that include partial agonists, although such agents are of considerable interest. Here, we propose a natural extension of CA to a functional form that may be applied to mixtures including full agonists and partial agonists. This extended definition, for which we suggest the term "generalized concentration addition," encompasses linear isoboles with slopes of any sign. We apply this approach to the simple example of agents with dose-response relationships described by Hill functions with slope parameter n=1. The resulting isoboles are in all cases linear, with negative, zero and positive slopes. Using simple mechanistic models of ligand-receptor systems, we show that the same isobole pattern and joint effects are generated by modeled combinations of full and partial agonists. Special cases include combinations of two full agonists and a full agonist plus a competitive antagonist.

Environmental and Endogenous Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ Agonists Induce Bone Marrow B Cell Growth Arrest and Apoptosis: Interactions between Mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, 9-cis-Retinoic Acid, and 15-Deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2

The common commercial use of phthalate esters has resulted in significant human exposure to these bioactive compounds. The facts that phthalate ester metabolites, like endogenous PGs, are peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonists, and that PPARgamma agonists induce lymphocyte apoptosis suggest that phthalate esters are immunosuppressants that could act together with PGs to modulate early B cell development. In this study we examined the effects of a metabolite of one environmental phthalate, mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP), and 15-deoxy-Delta(12,14)-PGJ(2) (15d-PGJ(2)), on developing B cells. MEHP inhibited [(3)H]thymidine incorporation by primary murine bone marrow B cells and a nontransformed murine pro/pre-B cell line (BU-11). Cotreatment with a retinoid X receptor alpha ligand, 9-cis-retinoic acid, decreased [(3)H]thymidine incorporation synergistically, thereby implicating activation of a PPARgamma-retinoid X receptor alpha complex. These results were similar to those obtained with the natural PPARgamma ligand 15d-PGJ(2). At moderate MEHP concentrations (25 or 100 microM for primary pro-B cells and a pro/pre-B cell line, respectively), inhibition of [(3)H]thymidine incorporation resulted primarily from apoptosis induction, whereas at lower concentrations, the inhibition probably reflected growth arrest without apoptosis. Cotreatment of bone marrow B cells with 15d-PGJ(2) and MEHP significantly enhanced the inhibition of [(3)H]thymidine incorporation seen with MEHP alone, potentially mimicking exposure in the bone marrow microenvironment where PG concentrations are high. Finally, MEHP- and 15d-PGJ(2)-induced death does not result from a decrease in NF-kappaB activation. These data demonstrate that environmental phthalates can cooperate with an endogenous ligand, 15d-PGJ(2), to inhibit proliferation of and induce apoptosis in developing bone marrow B cells, potentially via PPARgamma activation.