Advancing the 3Rs: innovation, implementation, ethics and society

The 3Rs principle of replacing, reducing and refining the use of animals in science has been gaining widespread support in the international research community and appears in transnational legislation such as the European Directive 2010/63/EU, a number of national legislative frameworks like in Switzerland and the UK, and other rules and guidance in place in countries around the world. At the same time, progress in technical and biomedical research, along with the changing status of animals in many societies, challenges the view of the 3Rs principle as a sufficient and effective approach to the moral challenges set by animal use in research. Given this growing awareness of our moral responsibilities to animals, the aim of this paper is to address the question: Can the 3Rs, as a policy instrument for science and research, still guide the morally acceptable use of animals for scientific purposes, and if so, how? The fact that the increased availability of alternatives to animal models has not correlated inversely with a decrease in the number of animals used in research has led to public and political calls for more radical action. However, a focus on the simple measure of total animal numbers distracts from the need for a more nuanced understanding of how the 3Rs principle can have a genuine influence as a guiding instrument in research and testing. Hence, we focus on three core dimensions of the 3Rs in contemporary research: (1) What scientific innovations are needed to advance the goals of the 3Rs? (2) What can be done to facilitate the implementation of existing and new 3R methods? (3) Do the 3Rs still offer an adequate ethical framework given the increasing social awareness of animal needs and human moral responsibilities? By answering these questions, we will identify core perspectives in the debate over the advancement of the 3Rs.

"The person in power told me to"-European PhD students' perspectives on guest authorship and good authorship practice

Questionable authorship practices in scientific publishing are detrimental to research quality and management. The existing literature dealing with the prevalence, and perceptions, of such practices has focused on the medical sciences, and on experienced researchers. In contrast, this study investigated how younger researchers (PhD students) from across the faculties view fair authorship attribution, their experience with granting guest authorships to more powerful researchers and their reasons for doing so. Data for the study were collected in a survey of European PhD students. The final dataset included 1,336 participants from five European countries (Denmark, Hungary, Ireland, Portugal, and Switzerland) representing all major disciplines. Approximately three in ten reported that they had granted at least one guest authorship to "a person in power". Half of these indicated that they had done so because they had been told to do so by the person in power. Participants from the medical, natural and technical sciences were much more likely to state that they had granted a guest authorship than those from other faculties. We identified four general views about what is sufficient for co-authorship. There were two dominant views. The first (inclusive view) considered a broad range of contributions to merit co-authorship. The second (strongly writing-oriented) emphasised that co-authors must have written a piece of the manuscript text. The inclusive view dominated in the natural, technical, and medical sciences. Participants from other faculties were more evenly distributed between the inclusive and writing oriented view. Those with an inclusive view were most likely to indicate that they have granted a guest authorship. According to the experiences of our participants, questionable authorship practices are prevalent among early-career researchers, and they appear to be reinforced through a combination of coercive power relations and dominant norms in some research cultures, particularly in the natural, technical, and medical sciences.

An Objective Structured Laboratory Animal Science Examination (OSLASE) to ensure researchers' professional competence in laboratory animal science

The evaluation of the competence of personnel working with laboratory animals is currently a challenge. Directive 2010/63/EU establishes that staff must have demonstrated competence before they perform unsupervised work with living animals. Nevertheless, there is a lack of research into education and training in laboratory animal science, and the establishment of assessment strategies to confirm researchers' competence remains largely unaddressed.In this study, we analysed the implementation of a practical assessment strategy over three consecutive years (2018-2021) using the Objective Structured Laboratory Animal Science Exam (OSLASE) developed previously by us to assess professional competence. The interrater reliability (IRR) was determined based on the assessors' rating of candidates' performance at different OSLASE stations using weighted kappa (Kw) and percentage of agreement. Focus group interviews were conducted to access trainees' acceptability regarding the OSLASE.There was a moderate-to-good Kw for the majority of the scales' items (0.79 ± 0.20 ≤ Kw ≥ 0.45 ± 0.13). The percentages of agreement were also acceptable (≥75%) for all scale items but one. Trainees reported that the OSLASE had a positive impact on their engagement during practical training, and that it clarified the standards established for their performance and the skills that required improvement. These preliminary results illustrate how assessment strategies, such as the OSLASE, can be implemented in a manner that is useful for both assessors and trainees.Examen structuré objectif de science animale de laboratoire (OSASSE) pour assurer la compétence professionnelle des chercheurs en SAL.

The Current Status and Work of Three Rs Centres and Platforms in Europe

The adoption of Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes has given a major push to the formation of Three Rs initiatives in the form of centres and platforms. These centres and platforms are dedicated to the so-called Three Rs, which are the Replacement, Reduction and Refinement of animal use in experiments. ATLA's 50th Anniversary year has seen the publication of two articles on European Three Rs centres and platforms. The first of these was about the progressive rise in their numbers and about their founding history; this second part focuses on their current status and activities. This article takes a closer look at their financial and organisational structures, describes their Three Rs focus and core activities (dissemination, education, implementation, scientific quality/translatability, ethics), and presents their areas of responsibility and projects in detail. This overview of the work and diverse structures of the Three Rs centres and platforms is not only intended to bring them closer to the reader, but also to provide role models and show examples of how such Three Rs centres and platforms could be made sustainable. The Three Rs centres and platforms are very important focal points and play an immense role as facilitators of Directive 2010/63/EU 'on the ground' in their respective countries. They are also invaluable for the wide dissemination of information and for promoting the implementation of the Three Rs in general.

Behavioural Aversion and Cortisol Level Assessment When Adult Zebrafish Are Exposed to Different Anaesthetics

Simple Summary

The increased popularity of zebrafish as a research model calls for appropriate refinement of procedures, such as finding the best anaesthetic protocol to use in adult zebrafish in a laboratory setting. The scarce literature available regarding aversion described the most used anaesthetic (MS222) as aversive to adult zebrafish; therefore, the study of alternatives is urgent. Thus, we studied the impact of three anaesthetic alternatives (a combination of propofol with lidocaine, clove oil, and etomidate), and the standard anaesthetic (MS222) on zebrafish aversion and on cortisol levels. Contrary to what was expected, MS222 did not result in clear signs of aversion, while only etomidate generated a similar profile to the aversive substance (hydrochloric acid). Our results suggested that all the anaesthetic protocols except for etomidate were valid candidates for use in a laboratory setting, although none were innocuous.

Abstract

The use of zebrafish (Danio rerio) as an animal model is growing and occurs in a wide range of scientific areas. Therefore, researchers need better and more appropriate anaesthetics for stressful and/or painful procedures to prevent unpleasant experiences. Thus, we aimed to study if adult zebrafish displayed aversion-associated behaviours (conditioned place aversion) and alterations in cortisol levels when exposed to equipotent concentrations of MS222, propofol/lidocaine, clove oil, or etomidate. Adult AB zebrafish (mixed-sex, N = 177) were randomly assigned to MS222 (150 mg/L), Propofol/Lidocaine (5 mg/L propofol + 150 mg/L lidocaine), Clove Oil (45 mg/L), or Etomidate (2 mg/L) groups. The conditioned place aversion test was used to assess behavioural aversion. Only etomidate resulted in a similar aversion to the positive control group (HCl; pH = 3). Cortisol levels were measured 5 and 15 min after loss of equilibrium. Etomidate induced low levels of cortisol by impairing its synthesis, whereas all the other groups had similar cortisol levels. Based on our data, etomidate was ruled out as an alternative to MS222, as it showed an aversive profile. The remaining protocols were not innocuous, displaying a weak aversive profile when compared to the positive control. In conclusion, a combination of propofol with lidocaine, clove oil, and MS222 were valid candidates for use as anaesthetic protocols.

177 Peer Community in Animal Science: A Free Publication Model for Transparent and Open Science

The scientific publication system should evolve into practices that enhance free dissemination and full access to research findings. At the same time, it should ensure reproducibility and transparency and safeguard scientific integrity from the detrimental effects of the current “publish or perish” culture. The objective of this contribution is to introduce the Peer Community In (PCI) Animal Science initiative (https://animsci.peercommunityin.org/), which represents an alternative to the current publication system under the umbrella of the “Peer Community In” project (https://peercommunityin.org/ ). PCI Animal Science is an international community of researchers working in animal science and related areas and it promotes open science and research transparency. Although PCI Animal Science is not a scientific journal, it operates similarly with editors (here: recommenders) and reviewers. Currently, the PCI Animal Science community has 64 recommenders from 20 countries. PCI Animal Science is a non-profit initiative, run and managed by researchers. The PCI Animal Science community performs, at no cost, rigorous open reviews of preprints that have been deposited on repositories such as bioRxiv and Zenodo from a wide range of research areas related to animal science. Based on independent reviews, a recommender decides whether a paper is recommended or not. Recommended preprints are peer-reviewed and citable stand-alone articles of high scientific value that do not need publication in traditional journals. However, if the authors wish, they can also publish their recommended preprint in the Diamond Open Access Peer Community Journal (https://peercommunityjournal.org/section/animsci/) at no cost. Authors can also submit their recommended manuscript to PCI-friendly journals (i.e., journals that consider the PCI evaluation in their own review processes) or to other journals. This contribution shows the workflow of the evaluation of manuscripts by PCI Animal Science and the advantages of adopting this new publishing model.

Seven steps to enhance Open Science practices in animal science

The Open Science movement aims at ensuring accessibility, reproducibility, and transparency of research. The adoption of Open Science practices in animal science, however, is still at an early stage. To move ahead as a field, we here provide seven practical steps to embrace Open Science in animal science. We hope that this paper contributes to the shift in research practices of animal scientists towards open, reproducible, and transparent science, enabling the field to gain additional public trust and deal with future challenges to guarantee reliable research. Although the paper targets primarily animal science researchers, the steps discussed here are also applicable to other research domains.

Anesthesia Overdose Versus Rapid Cooling for Euthanasia of Adult Zebrafish

The rapid increase in zebrafish use needs to be accompanied by research into the refinement of procedures. The European (EU) Directive lists three possible euthanasia methods for fish: anesthetic overdose, electrical stunning, and concussion. However, for small fish such as zebrafish, concussion and electrical stunning are difficult to perform, leaving anesthetic overdose as the most used method. Our aim was to test the efficacy and side effects of anesthesia overdose using different anesthetics and the rapid cooling method to euthanize adult zebrafish. Adult mixed-sex AB zebrafish were randomly assigned to: 250 mg/L MS222; 20 mg/L propofol +100 mg/L lidocaine; 6 mg/L etomidate; 50 mg/L clove oil; and rapid cooling (water at 2°C-4°C). Two minutes after opercular movement ceased, animals were transferred into clean water for 20 min and recovery assessed, or decapitated and used for biochemical analysis of the gills, muscle, liver, and brain; for the histological analysis of the gills and muscle; or for the assessment of cortisol levels. No animal recovered; rapid cooling was the quickest and etomidate overdose was the slowest method to cease the opercular movements. There were no major differences between euthanasia methods regarding the biochemical or histological data. Cortisol levels were higher in the rapid cooling group, but only when compared with the propofol/lidocaine group. The use of a physical method of euthanasia, such as rapid cooling, is essential when chemicals, such as anesthetics, may interfere with postmortem analyses. Although anesthetic overdose can be used without major effects on the analyses conducted in this work, rapid cooling can be another option with the advantage of being simple to administer, easily available, affordable, and very quick; this decreases the potential duration of suffering, being more humane. Therefore, a change in EU legislation should be considered to include additional humane options for euthanasia, such as rapid cooling, for zebrafish and other small tropical fish.

The Rise of Three Rs Centres and Platforms in Europe

Public awareness and discussion about animal experiments and replacement methods has greatly increased in recent years. The term 'the Three Rs', which stands for the Replacement, Reduction and Refinement of animal experiments, is inseparably linked in this context. A common goal within the Three Rs scientific community is to develop predictive non-animal models and to better integrate all available data from in vitro, in silico and omics technologies into regulatory decision-making processes regarding, for example, the toxicity of chemicals, drugs or food ingredients. In addition, it is a general concern to implement (human) non-animal methods in basic research. Toward these efforts, there has been an ever-increasing number of Three Rs centres and platforms established over recent years - not only to develop novel methods, but also to disseminate knowledge and help to implement the Three Rs principles in policies and education. The adoption of Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes gave a strong impetus to the creation of Three Rs initiatives, in the form of centres and platforms. As the first of a series of papers, this article gives an overview of the European Three Rs centres and platforms, and their historical development. The subsequent articles, to be published over the course of ATLA's 50th Anniversary year, will summarise the current focus and tasks as well as the future and the plans of the Three Rs centres and platforms. The Three Rs centres and platforms are very important points of contact and play an immense role in their respective countries as 'on the ground' facilitators of Directive 2010/63/EU. They are also invaluable for the widespread dissemination of information and for promoting implementation of the Three Rs in general.

From Mating to Milk Access: A Review of Reproductive Vocal Communication in Mice

Vocalisations play a central role in rodent communication, especially in reproduction related behaviours. In adult mice (Mus musculus) the emission of ultrasonic vocalisations (USVs) has been observed in courtship and mating behaviour, especially by males. These have been found to have distinctive individual signatures that influence female choice of mating partner. The most recent findings show that vocal communication also has a role in parental cooperation, in that female mice communicate with male partners in ultrasonic frequencies to induce paternal behaviour. Infant vocalisations form the other important part of reproductive vocal communication. Although born deaf, neonatal mice are capable of producing vocalisations since birth. As an altricial species, successful mother-infant communication is essential for survival, and these vocalisations are important modulators of maternal behaviour. Three main types of infant vocalisations have been identified and characterised. Most research has addressed pure USVs, related to stressful situations (e.g., cold, isolation, handling, presence of unfamiliar males or predators), which usually elicit maternal search and retrieval. In addition, broad-band spectrum signals, emitted post-partum during cleaning of foetal membranes, inhibit biting and injury by adults and “wriggling calls,” emitted during suckling, release maternal behaviour (such as licking). Several variables have been identified to modulate vocalisations in mice, including individual characteristics such as strain/genotype, age, sex, and experimental factors such as pharmacological compounds and social context. In recent years, there has been a big increase in the knowledge about the characteristics of vocal communication in rodents due to recent technological advances as well as a growing interest from the neuroscience community. Vocalisation analysis has become an essential tool for phenotyping and evaluating emotional states. In this review, we will (i) provide a comprehensive summary of the current knowledge on mouse reproductive vocal communication and (ii) discuss the most recent findings in order to provide a broad overview on this topic.

Non-Invasive Assessment of Mild Stress-Induced Hyperthermia by Infrared Thermography in Laboratory Mice

Stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH) is a physiological response to acute stressors in mammals, shown as an increase in core body temperature, with redirection of blood flow from the periphery to vital organs. Typical temperature assessment methods for rodents are invasive and can themselves elicit SIH, affecting the readout. Infrared thermography (IRT) is a promising non-invasive alternative, if shown to accurately identify and quantify SIH. We used in-house developed software ThermoLabAnimal 2.0 to automatically detect and segment different body regions, to assess mean body (Tbody) and mean tail (Ttail) surface temperatures by IRT, along with temperature (Tsc) assessed by reading of subcutaneously implanted PIT-tags, during handling-induced stress of pair-housed C57BL/6J and BALB/cByJ mice of both sexes (N = 68). SIH was assessed during 10 days of daily handling (DH) performed twice per day, weekly voluntary interaction tests (VIT) and an elevated plus maze (EPM) at the end. To assess the discrimination value of IRT, we compared SIH between tail-picked and tunnel-handled animals, and between mice receiving an anxiolytic drug or vehicle prior to the EPM. During a 30 to 60 second stress exposure, Tsc and Tbody increased significantly (p < 0.001), while Ttail (p < 0.01) decreased. We did not find handling-related differences. Within each cage, mice tested last consistently showed significantly higher (p < 0.001) Tsc and Tbody and lower (p < 0.001) Ttail than mice tested first, possibly due to higher anticipatory stress in the latter. Diazepam-treated mice showed lower Tbody and Tsc, consistent with reduced anxiety. In conclusion, our results suggest that IRT can identify and quantify stress in mice, either as a stand-alone parameter or complementary to other methods.

Organoids as host models for infection biology - a review of methods

Infectious diseases are a major threat worldwide. With the alarming rise of antimicrobial resistance and emergence of new potential pathogens, a better understanding of the infection process is urgently needed. Over the last century, the development of in vitro and in vivo models has led to remarkable contributions to the current knowledge in the field of infection biology. However, applying recent advances in organoid culture technology to research infectious diseases is now taking the field to a higher level of complexity. Here, we describe the current methods available for the study of infectious diseases using organoid cultures.

Adult Zebrafish Anesthesia: A Study of Efficacy and Behavioral Recovery of Different Anesthetics

The use of proper anesthesia in zebrafish research is essential to ensure fish welfare and data reliability. However, anesthesia long-term side effects remain poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to assess anesthesia quality and recovery in adult zebrafish using different anesthetic protocols and to determine possible long-term effects on the fish activity and anxiety-like behaviors after anesthesia. Mixed-sex adult AB zebrafish were randomly assigned to five different groups (Control, 175 mg/L of tricaine methanesulfonate [MS222], 45 mg/L of clove oil, 2 mg/L of etomidate, and 5 mg/L of propofol combined with 150 mg/L of lidocaine) and placed in the respective anesthetic bath. Time to lose the equilibrium, response to touch and to caudal fin pinch stimuli, and recovery after anesthesia administration were evaluated. In addition, after stopping anesthesia, respiratory rate, activity, and anxiety-like behaviors in the novel tank test were studied. Overall, all protocols proved to be adequate for zebrafish anesthesia research as they showed full recovery at 1 h, and only etomidate had minor effects on fish behavior in the novel tank, a validated test for anxiety.

The assessment of researchers' competence in experimental procedures with laboratory animals: A three-step methodology to develop a global rating scale

To conduct animal experiments, researchers must be competent to handle and perform interventions on living animals in compliance with regulations. Laboratory animal science training programmes and licensing bodies therefore need to be able to reliably ensure and certify the professional competence of researchers and technicians. This requires access to assessment strategies which can verify knowledge as well as capturing performative and behavioural dimensions of assessment. In this paper, we describe the process of developing different global rating scales measuring candidates' competence in a performative assessment. We set out the following sequence, with three crucial phases, in the process of scale development: (a) Item Development, (b) Scale Development and (c) Piloting of the Scale. We note each phase's different sub-steps. Despite the emergent need to ensure the competence of researchers using animals in scientific procedures, to our best knowledge there are very few species and procedure/skill specific assessment tools for this purpose, and the assessment methodology literature in the field is very limited. This paper provides guidance for those who need to develop and assess proficiency in laboratory animal procedures by setting out a method that can be used to create the required tools and illustrating how competence assessment strategies can be implemented.

Improving dog training methods: Efficacy and efficiency of reward and mixed training methods

Dogs play an important role in our society as companions and work partners, and proper training of these dogs is pivotal. For companion dogs, training helps preventing or managing dog behavioral problems—the most frequently cited reason for relinquishing and euthanasia, and it promotes successful dog-human relationships and thus maximizes benefits humans derive from bonding with dogs. For working dogs, training is crucial for them to successfully accomplish their jobs. Dog training methods range widely from those using predominantly aversive stimuli (aversive methods), to those combining aversive and rewarding stimuli (mixed methods) and those focusing on the use of rewards (reward methods). The use of aversive stimuli in training is highly controversial and several veterinary and animal protection organizations have recommended a ban on pinch collars, e-collars and other techniques that induce fear or pain in dogs, on the grounds that such methods compromise dog welfare. At the same time, training methods based on the use of rewards are claimed to be more humane and equally or more effective than aversive or mixed methods. This important discussion, however, has not always been based in solid scientific evidence. Although there is growing scientific evidence that training with aversive stimuli has a negative impact on dog welfare, the scientific literature on the efficacy and efficiency of the different methodologies is scarce and inconsistent. Hence, the goal of the current study is to investigate the efficacy and efficiency of different dog training methods. To that end, we will apply different dog training methods in a population of working dogs and evaluate the outcome after a period of training. The use of working dogs will allow for a rigorous experimental design and control, with randomization of treatments. Military (n = 10) and police (n = 20) dogs will be pseudo-randomly allocated to two groups. One group will be trained to perform a set of tasks (food refusal, interrupted recall, dumbbell retrieval and placing items in a basket) using reward methods and the other group will be trained for the same tasks using mixed methods. Later, the dogs will perform a standardized test where they will be required to perform the trained behaviors. The reliability of the behaviors and the time taken to learn them will be assessed in order to evaluate the efficacy and efficiency, respectively, of the different training methods. This study will be performed in collaboration with the Portuguese Army and with the Portuguese Public Security Police (PSP) and integrated with their dog training programs.

Necropsy protocol for newborn mice

Neonatal mortality is high in laboratory mouse breeding, and causes are poorly understood. Post-mortem analysis of pups is an often overlooked source of information and insight. We present a necropsy protocol for neonatal mice designed for easy practical application by animal technicians.

Does training method matter? Evidence for the negative impact of aversive-based methods on companion dog welfare

Dog training methods range broadly from those using mostly positive punishment and negative reinforcement (aversive-based) to those using primarily positive reinforcement (reward-based). Although aversive-based training has been strongly criticized for negatively affecting dog welfare, there is no comprehensive research focusing on companion dogs and mainstream techniques, and most studies rely on owner-reported assessment of training methods and dog behavior. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of aversive- and reward-based training methods on companion dog welfare within and outside the training context. Ninety-two companion dogs were recruited from three reward-based schools (Group Reward, n = 42), and from four aversive-based schools, two using low proportions of aversive-based methods (Group Mixed, n = 22) and two using high proportions of aversive-based methods (Group Aversive, n = 28). For evaluating welfare during training, dogs were video recorded for three sessions and six saliva samples were collected, three at home (baseline levels) and three after training (post-training levels). Video recordings were used to examine the frequency of stress-related behaviors (e.g., lip lick, yawn) and the overall behavioral state of the dog (e.g., tense, relaxed), and saliva samples were analyzed for cortisol concentration. For evaluating welfare outside the training context, dogs participated in a cognitive bias task. Results showed that dogs from Group Aversive displayed more stress-related behaviors, were more frequently in tense and low behavioral states and panted more during training, and exhibited higher post-training increases in cortisol levels than dogs from Group Reward. Additionally, dogs from Group Aversive were more 'pessimistic' in the cognitive bias task than dogs from Group Reward. Dogs from Group Mixed displayed more stress-related behaviors, were more frequently in tense states and panted more during training than dogs from Group Reward. Finally, although Groups Mixed and Aversive did not differ in their performance in the cognitive bias task nor in cortisol levels, the former displayed more stress-related behaviors and was more frequently in tense and low behavioral states. These findings indicate that aversive-based training methods, especially if used in high proportions, compromise the welfare of companion dogs both within and outside the training context.

High laboratory mouse pre-weaning mortality associated with litter overlap, advanced dam age, small and large litters

High and variable pre-weaning mortality is a persistent problem in laboratory mouse breeding. Assuming a modest 15% mortality rate across mouse strains, means that approximately 1 million more pups are produced yearly in the EU to compensate for those which die. This paper presents the first large study under practical husbandry conditions to determine the risk factors associated with mouse pre-weaning mortality. We analysed historical records from 219,975 pups from two breeding facilities, collected as part of their management routine and including information on number of pups born and weaned per litter, parents’ age and identification, and dates of birth and death of all animals. Pups were counted once in their first week of life and at weaning, and once every one or two weeks, depending on the need for cage cleaning. Dead pups were recorded as soon as these were found during the daily cage screening (without opening the cage). It was hypothesized that litter overlap (i.e. the presence of older siblings in the cage when new pups are born), a recurrent social configuration in trio-housed mice, is associated with increased newborn mortality, along with advanced dam age, large litter size, and a high number and age of older siblings in the cage. The estimated probability of pup death was two to seven percentage points higher in cages with litter overlap compared to those without. Litter overlap was associated with an increase in death of the entire litter of five and six percentage points, which represent an increase of 19% and 103% compared to non-overlapped litters in the two breeding facilities, respectively. Increased number and age of older siblings, advanced dam age, small litter size (less than four pups born) and large litter size (over 11 pups born) were associated with increased probability of pup death.

From Unpleasant to Unbearable-Why and How to Implement an Upper Limit to Pain And Other Forms of Suffering in Research with Animals

The focus of this paper is the requirement that the use of live animals in experiments and in vivo assays should never be allowed if those uses involve severe suffering. This requirement was first implemented in Danish legislation, was later adopted by the European Union, and has had limited uptake in North America. Animal suffering can arise from exposure to a wide range of different external and internal events that threaten biological or social functions, while the severity of suffering may be influenced by the animals' perceptions of their own situation and the degree of control they are able to exert. Severe suffering is more than an incremental increase in negative state(s) but involves a qualitative shift whereby the normal mechanisms to contain or keep negative states at arm's length no longer function. The result of severe suffering will be a loss of the ability of cope. The idea of putting a cap on severe suffering may be justified from multiple ethical perspectives. In most, if not all, cases it is possible to avoid imposing severe suffering on animals during experiments without giving up the potential benefits of finding new ways to cure, prevent, or alleviate serious human diseases and generate other important knowledge. From this it follows that there is a strong ethical case to favor a regulatory ban on animal experiments involving severe suffering.

Effect of Repeated Exposure to Isoflurane on Nest Building and Burrowing in Mice

Nest building and burrowing are highly motivated natural behaviors in rodents, and changes in these behaviors can serve as welfare assessment tools. In this study, we investigated: 1) the limits of agreement between 2 observers for a refined scoring method for nest-building behavior; 2) the effect of repeated exposure to 15 min of isoflurane on nest-building behavior; 3) the effect of 24 h of grid-floor housing, repeated exposure to 15 min isoflurane, and daily intraperitoneal injection of 0.2 mL 0.9% isotonic saline for 3 d on burrowing behavior; and 4) the effect of exposure to grid-floor housing, isoflurane, and intraperitoneal injections on fecal corticosterone metabolites, body weight, fur status, and sucrose preference in mice. SPF C57BL/6NTac female mice (n = 27) were included in the study and were assessed first for burrowing behavior, followed by 2 wk of rest and then for nesting behavior. The refined scoring method for nest-building activity had good inter observer agreement. According to this method, a single exposure to anesthesia with isoflurane led to a decrease in nest-building activity and sucrose preference; a second exposure to anesthesia with isoflurane had no effect on nest building. Neither grid-floor housing nor repeated exposure to isoflurane anesthesia had any effect on burrowing behavior in mice. In contrast, intraperitoneal injections increased burrowing behavior. In conclusion, a refined scoring method for nest-building activity test that we developed for this study proved to be objective and sensitive to the effect of an initial exposure to anesthesia with isoflurane.

Students' acceptance of e-learning approaches in Laboratory Animal Science Training

Different online courses and training programs in Laboratory Animal Science (LAS) have emerged across Europe in recent years. E-learning appears to be a promising solution to achieve flexibility in training while meeting the quality criteria of demanding programs in short training periods. However, little is known about how students perceive e-learning in this context, and there is also a lack of specific and valid instruments to measure this perception. Within an exploratory study framework, the e-learning perception of 229 participants in 15 courses in Portugal using two different online training formats, flipped classroom and full online theoretical training, was assessed. For this purpose, the Questionnaire of E-learning Acceptance (QELA), a 32-item accordance Likert-type scale comprising five subscales was developed to explore the following: how participant perceive e-learning, satisfaction with organization and contents, perception of e-learning relevance for the time management, and its influence for practical training. In general, e-learning was well accepted and perceived to work well and be useful by the majority of courses participants, independently of the course level and e-learning format approach. These results indeed suggest that integration of e-learning is useful in LAS training. We also propose the QELA as a starting point for development and implementation of specific instruments to assess e-learning acceptance in LAS across a wider range of geographical and training contexts.

Methodological standards, quality of reporting and regulatory compliance in animal research on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a systematic review

Objectives

The amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) research community was one of the first to adopt methodology guidelines to improve preclinical research reproducibility. We here present the results of a systematic review to investigate how the standards in this field changed over the 10-year period during which the guidelines were first published (2007) and updated (2010).

Methods

We searched for papers reporting ALS research on SOD1 (superoxide dismutase 1) mice published between 2005 and 2015 on the ISI Web of Science database, resulting in a sample of 569 papers to review, after triage. Two scores-one for methodological quality, one for regulatory compliance-were built from weighted sums of separate sets of items, and subjected to multivariable regression analysis, to assess how these related to publication year, type of study, country of origin and journal.

Results

Reporting standards improved over time. Of papers published after the first ALS guidelines were made public, fewer than 9% referred specifically to these. Of key research parameters, only three (genetic background, number of transgenes and group size) were reported in >50% of the papers. Information on housing conditions, randomisation and blinding was absent in over two-thirds of the papers. Group size was among the best reported parameters, but the majority reported using fewer than the recommended sample size and only two studies clearly justified group size.

Conclusions

General methodological standards improved gradually over a period of 8-10 years, but remained generally comparable with related fields with no specific guidelines, except with regard to severity. Only 11% of ALS studies were classified in the highest severity level (animals allowed to reach death or moribund stages), substantially below the proportion in studies of comparable neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's. The existence of field-specific guidelines, although a welcome indication of concern, seems insufficient to ensure adherence to high methodological standards. Other mechanisms may be required to improve methodological and welfare standards.

Researchers' attitudes to the 3Rs-An upturned hierarchy?

Animal use in biomedical research is generally justified by its potential benefits to the health of humans, or other animals, or the environment. However, ethical acceptability also requires scientists to limit harm to animals in their research. Training in laboratory animal science (LAS) helps scientists to do this by promoting best practice and the 3Rs. This study evaluated scientists' awareness and application of the 3Rs, and their approach to other ethical issues in animal research. It was based on an online survey of participants in LAS courses held in eight venues in four European countries: Portugal (Porto, Braga), Germany (Munich, Heidelberg), Switzerland (Basel, Lausanne, Zurich), and Denmark (Copenhagen). The survey questions were designed to assess general attitudes to animal use in biomedical research, Replacement alternatives, Reduction and Refinement conflicts, and harm-benefit analysis. The survey was conducted twice: immediately before the course ('BC', N = 310) and as a follow-up six months after the course ('AC', N = 127). While courses do appear to raise awareness of the 3Rs, they had no measurable effect on the existing low level of belief that animal experimentation can be fully replaced by non-animal methods. Most researchers acknowledged ethical issues with their work and reported that they discussed these with their peers. The level of an animal's welfare, and especially the prevention of pain, was regarded as the most pressing ethical issue, and as more important than the number of animals used or the use of animals as such. Refinement was considered more feasible than Replacement, as well as more urgent, and was also favoured over Reduction. Respondents in the survey reversed the 'hierarchy' of the 3Rs proposed by their architects, Russell and Burch, prioritizing Refinement over Reduction, and Reduction over Replacement. This ordering may conflict with the expectations of the public and regulators.

Harm-benefit analysis - what is the added value? A review of alternative strategies for weighing harms and benefits as part of the assessment of animal research

Animal experiments are widely required to comply with the 3Rs, to minimise harm to the animals and to serve certain purposes in order to be ethically acceptable. Recently, however, there has been a drift towards adding a so-called harm-benefit analysis as an additional requirement in assessing experiments. According to this, an experiment should only be allowed if there is a positive balance when the expected harm is weighed against the expected benefits. This paper aims to assess the added value of this requirement. Two models, the discourse model and the metric model, are presented. According to the former, the weighing of harms and benefits must be conducted by a committee in which different stakeholders engage in a dialogue. Research into how this works in practice, however, shows that in the absence of an explicit and clearly defined methodology, there are issues about transparency, consistency and fairness. According to the metric model, on the other hand, several dimensions of harms and benefits are defined beforehand and integrated in an explicit weighing scheme. This model, however, has the problem that it makes no real room for ethical deliberation of the sort committees undertake, and it has therefore been criticised for being too technocratic. Also, it is unclear who is to be held accountable for built-in ethical assumptions. Ultimately, we argue that the two models are not mutually exclusive and may be combined to make the most of their advantages while reducing the disadvantages of how harm-benefit analysis in typically undertaken.

Experimental study of tuberculosis: From animal models to complex cell systems and organoids

Tuberculosis (TB) is a devastating disease to mankind that has killed more people than any other infectious disease. Despite many efforts and successes from the scientific and health communities, the prospect of TB elimination remains distant. On the one hand, sustainable public health programs with affordable and broad implementation of anti-TB measures are needed. On the other hand, achieving TB elimination requires critical advances in three areas: vaccination, diagnosis, and treatment. It is also well accepted that succeeding in advancing these areas requires a deeper knowledge of host—pathogen interactions during infection, and for that, better experimental models are needed. Here, we review the potential and limitations of different experimental approaches used in TB research, focusing on animal and human-based cell culture models. We highlight the most recent advances in developing in vitro 3D models and introduce the potential of lung organoids as a new tool to study Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection.

Tuberculosis (TB) is the number 1 killer in the world due to a bacterial infection. The study of this disease through clinical and epidemiological data and through the use of different experimental models has provided important knowledge on the role of the immune response generated during infection. This is critical for the development of novel vaccines and therapeutic strategies. However, in spite of the advances made, it is well accepted that better models are needed to study TB. This review discusses the different models used to study TB, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of the available animal and cellular models and introducing recently developed state-of-the-art approaches based on human-based cell culture systems. These new advances are integrated in a road map for future study of TB, converging for the potential of lung organoids in TB research.

Intraperitoneal propofol and propofol fentanyl, sufentanil and remifentanil combinations for mouse anaesthesia

The combination of propofol and a rapid-acting opioid, such as fentanyl, sufentanil or remifentanil, is a relatively safe, total intravenous anaesthesia technique, commonly used in humans and which has been investigated in laboratory animals. The objective of this study was to evaluate these combinations for anaesthesia of mice by the intraperitoneal (i.p.) route. Sixty-seven mice, divided into groups of four, were used to test 28 combinations of propofol alone and propofol with fentanyl, sufentanil or remifentanil administered i.p. The dose ranges of drugs studied were propofol 50–200 mg/kg, fentanyl 0.2–0.4 mg/kg, sufentanil 0.05–0.1 mg/kg and remifentanil 0.2–1.0 mg/kg. The loss of righting reflex (RR) and the loss of pedal withdrawal reflex (PWR) were recorded along with the duration and quality of recovery. The results obtained in these studies were unpredictable. The same dose combinations of propofol and opioids were associated with different responses in different individuals. Higher doses did not induce loss of RR and PWR in all animals and were associated with high mortality rates. An adequate hypnotic level was only observed with higher doses of propofol. The synergistic effect of propofol and the opioids was not sufficient to allow surgical procedures. Animals that reached PWR loss showed tail rigidity, shaking limbs and scratched their heads with their forefeet. Higher opioid doses induced respiratory depression and higher death rates. The inconsistency between and within groups may be associated with the i.p. route. The results reported here show that the i.p. route is not appropriate for mouse anaesthesia using propofol alone or in combination with fentanyl, sufentanil or remifentanil.

The effect of preweaning and postweaning housing on the behaviour of the laboratory mouse (Mus musculus)

Standard housing for laboratory mice severely restricts natural behaviour and the control that the animal has over its environment. Providing the cage with objects is a method that has been used to both increase environmental complexity, promote the performance of natural behaviour and provide greater controllability for the animal. This method of furnishing cages has mostly been studied in adult animals, and little is known about the influence that the preweaning environment has on the behaviour of mice as adults. This study aimed to investigate the effects on mice behaviour of preweaning and postweaning housing environment.

In this experiment, 64 pairs of animals of the strain C57BL/6J were used. Half of the animals were born and reared until weaning in standard cages and the other half in cages twice the size of the standard and furnished with nesting material, a cardboard tube, a PVC nest box and a wooden chewblock. After weaning, half the animals in each group were changed to the other type of cage, whereas the other half remained in the same environment; in both cases they were kept in single-sex pairs of littermates. Behaviour during the dark, active period was studied through video recordings.

We found no main effects of preweaning environment on behaviour; however, mice moved from furnished to standard cages at weaning showed a decrease in inactive behaviour at four weeks of age. Mice housed after weaning in standard cages spent less time inactive, and more time engaging in activities like feeding and drinking, self-grooming and allogrooming. A sex difference was also found, in that females showed a greater performance of exploratory behaviour as well as a greater prevalence of stereotypies. The use of different objects and locations within the furnished cage was also analysed at both ages. Results show that at eight weeks of age mice spent more time at the top of the cage, and that the use of the nest box (although not for resting) increased between four and eight weeks. Mice were found to use the nest box as a nesting site/sleeping place only at age four weeks, whereas they always used the nesting material for sleeping.

Protecting Animals and Enabling Research in the European Union: An Overview of Development and Implementation of Directive 2010/63/EU

In 1986, European Directive 86/609/EEC, regulating the use of animals in research, was one of the first examples of common legislation to set standards for animal protection across the Member States of the former European Economic Community, now the European Union, with the aim of securing a level European playing field. Starting in 2002, a process of revising European animal experimentation legislation was undertaken, with one of its key aims being to ensure high standards of welfare for laboratory animals across Europe. This resulted in Directive 2010/63/EU, which has regulated this activity in Europe since 2013. Since this is a European Union Directive, transposition into national legislation is a necessary and important part of the implementation of the new legislation. This paper gives an overview of the transposition process followed by an analysis of the potential to reach the different objectives of the directive, particularly with a focus on securing the same high standards of animal protection across member countries. The analysis focuses on three separate issues: (1) minimum standards for laboratory animal housing and care, (2) restrictions on the use of certain animal species, and (3) project review and authorization.

Estimating the predictive validity of diabetic animal models in rosiglitazone studies

For therapeutic studies, predictive validity of animal models - arguably the most important feature of animal models in terms of human relevance - can be calculated retrospectively by obtaining data on treatment efficacy from human and animal trials. Using rosiglitazone as a case study, we aim to determine the predictive validity of animal models of diabetes, by analysing which models perform most similarly to humans during rosiglitazone treatment in terms of changes in standard diabetes diagnosis parameters (glycosylated haemoglobin [HbA1c] and fasting glucose levels). A further objective of this paper was to explore the impact of four covariates on the predictive capacity: (i) diabetes induction method; (ii) drug administration route; (iii) sex of animals and (iv) diet during the experiments. Despite the variable consistency of animal species-based models with the human reference for glucose and HbA1c treatment effects, our results show that glucose and HbA1c treatment effects in rats agreed better with the expected values based on human data than in other species. Induction method was also found to be a substantial factor affecting animal model performance. The study concluded that regular reassessment of animal models can help to identify human relevance of each model and adapt research design for actual research goals.

Does the goal justify the methods? Harm and benefit in neuroscience research using animals

The goal of the present chapter is to open up for discussion some of the major ethical issues involved in animal-based neuroscience research. We begin by approaching the question of the moral acceptability of the use of animals in research at all, exploring the implications of three different ethical theories: contractarianism, utilitarianism, and animal rights. In the rest of this chapter, we discuss more specific issues of neuroscience research within what we argue is the mainstream framework for research animal ethics, namely one based on harm-benefit analysis. We explore issues of harms and benefits and how to balance them as well as how to reduce harm and increase benefit within neuroscience research.

Is it acceptable to use animals to model obese humans? A critical discussion of two arguments against the use of animals in obesity research

Animal use in medical research is widely accepted on the basis that it may help to save human lives and improve their quality of life. Recently, however, objections have been made specifically to the use of animals in scientific investigation of human obesity. This paper discusses two arguments for the view that this form of animal use, unlike some other forms of animal-based medical research, cannot be defended. The first argument leans heavily on the notion that people themselves are responsible for developing obesity and so-called 'lifestyle' diseases; the second involves the claim that animal studies of obesity's causes and therapies distract attention from preventive efforts. Drawing on both empirical data and moral reasoning, we argue that the relevant attributions of responsibility and claims about distraction are not plausible, and that, therefore, there is no reason to single out the use of animals in obesity research as especially problematic.

Examining why ethics is taught to veterinary students: a qualitative study of veterinary educators' perspectives

Although it is widely agreed that veterinary students need to be introduced to ethics, there is limited empirical research investigating the reasons why veterinary ethics is being taught. This study presents the first extensive investigation into the reasons for teaching veterinary ethics and reports data collected in semi-structured interviews with educators involved in teaching undergraduate veterinary ethics at three European schools: the University of Copenhagen, the University of Nottingham, and the Technical University of Lisbon (curricular year 2010-2011). The content of the interview transcripts were analyzed using Toulmin's argumentative model. Ten objectives in teaching veterinary ethics were identified, which can be grouped into four overarching themes: ethical awareness, ethical knowledge, ethical skills, and individual and professional qualities. These objectives include recognizing values and ethical viewpoints, identifying norms and regulations, developing skills of communication and decision making, and contributing to a professional identity. Whereas many of the objectives complement each other, there is tension between the view that ethics teaching should promote knowledge of professional rules and the view that ethics teaching should emphasize critical reasoning skills. The wide range of objectives and the possible tensions between them highlight the challenges faced by educators as they attempt to prioritize among these goals of ethics teaching within a crowded veterinary curriculum.

Scientists and the 3Rs: attitudes to animal use in biomedical research and the effect of mandatory training in laboratory animal science

The 3Rs principle of replacement, reduction, and refinement has increasingly been endorsed by legislators and regulatory bodies as the best approach to tackle the ethical dilemma presented by animal experimentation in which the potential benefits for humans stand against the costs borne by the animals. Even when animal use is tightly regulated and supervised, the individual researcher's responsibility is still decisive in the implementation of the 3Rs. Training in laboratory animal science (LAS) aims to raise researchers' awareness and increase their knowledge, but its effect on scientists' attitudes and practice has not so far been systematically assessed. Participants (n = 206) in eight LAS courses (following the Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Associations category C recommendations) in Portugal were surveyed in a self-administered questionnaire during the course. Questions were related mainly to the 3Rs and their application, attitudes to animal use and the ethical review of animal experiments. One year later, all the respondents were asked to answer a similar questionnaire (57% response rate) with added self-evaluation questions on the impact of training. Our results suggest that the course is effective in promoting awareness and increasing knowledge of the 3Rs, particularly with regard to refinement. However, participation in the course did not change perceptions on the current and future needs for animal use in research.

The memory stages of a spatial Y-maze task are not affected by a low dose of ketamine/midazolam

Anesthetics, such as the ketamine/midazolam combination, are used in research with animals and in human clinical practice; thus, it is essential to clarify the potential effects of these anesthetics on memory. This study aimed to evaluate how a low dose of the ketamine/midazolam combination affects the acquisition, consolidation, or recall of a spatial memory task. Thirty-three adult male C57BL/6 mice were divided into four treatment groups: unanesthetized control animals and three groups of animals treated with 40 mg/kg of ketamine and 10mg/kg of midazolam administered in a single intraperitoneal injection. The different treatment groups received the same anesthetic dose at different time points, to study the acquisition, consolidation, and recall of spatial memory in the Y-maze task. The percentage of correct choices was measured. Six mice were killed 4 days and 12 days after anesthesia for histopathological analyses. There were no differences between treatment and control groups regarding the acquisition of spatial memory, measured as the slope of the learning curve, or in the percentage of correct choices in the consolidation or recall periods of the task. Similarly, no differences were detected between groups regarding the number of cells per square millimeter in the visual and retrosplenial cortex, in the dentate gyrus, and in the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus. Hence, a low dose of the ketamine/midazolam combination did not impair memory processes or brain integrity in adult mice, suggesting that this combination is unlikely to cause cognitive complications.

Is the ethical appraisal of protocols enough to ensure best practice in animal research?

The common-held belief is that the ethical appraisal of protocols ensures good practice in animal-based research, but a large number of ethically approved studies allow animals to endure avoidable and severe suffering

The anaesthetic combination of ketamine/midazolam does not alter the acquisition of spatial and motor tasks in adult mice

The ketamine/midazolam association of a dissociative with a sedative agent is used for the induction and maintenance of anaesthesia in laboratory animals. Anaesthesia may interfere with research results through side-effects on the nervous system, such as memory impairment. It is known that ketamine and midazolam affect cognition; however, their effects have not been clarified when used in a context of balanced anaesthesia. Thus, this study evaluated the effects of ketamine/midazolam on the acquisition of motor and of a spatial memory task in adult mice. Twenty-eight C57BL/6 adult male mice were divided into three groups: untreated control, treated with ketamine/midazolam (75 mg/kg / 10 mg/kg) and treated with midazolam (10 mg/kg) groups. Respiratory rate, heart rate and systolic pressure were measured every 5 min in the animals treated with ketamine/midazolam, as this was the only group that exhibited loss of the righting reflex. One day after treatment, animals were tested in the open field, rotarod and radial arm maze. There were no differences between treatments regarding open-field activity, rotarod performance or number of working and reference memory errors in the radial arm maze task. In conclusion, the learning process of spatial and motor tasks was not disrupted by the anaesthetic combination of ketamine/midazolam. These results suggest its safe use in adult mice in projects where acquisition of a spatial and motor task is necessary.

Animal welfare in studies on murine tuberculosis: assessing progress over a 12-year period and the need for further improvement

There is growing concern over the welfare of animals used in research, in particular when these animals develop pathology. The present study aims to identify the main sources of animal distress and to assess the possible implementation of refinement measures in experimental infection research, using mouse models of tuberculosis (TB) as a case study. This choice is based on the historical relevance of mouse studies in understanding the disease and the present and long-standing impact of TB on a global scale. Literature published between 1997 and 2009 was analysed, focusing on the welfare impact on the animals used and the implementation of refinement measures to reduce this impact. In this 12-year period, we observed a rise in reports of ethical approval of experiments. The proportion of studies classified into the most severe category did however not change significantly over the studied period. Information on important research parameters, such as method for euthanasia or sex of the animals, were absent in a substantial number of papers. Overall, this study shows that progress has been made in the application of humane endpoints in TB research, but that a considerable potential for improvement remains.

Influence of strain and parity on the risk of litter loss in laboratory mice

Pup mortality is a considerable problem in laboratory mouse breeding and the view that parity influence survival of newborn mice is widespread. Some evidence suggests that maternal behaviour is related to offspring mortality in mice. Parental experience is a factor that can improve maternal behaviour and offspring survival in some mammals. However, few papers report a relationship between parity and pup survival in mice. We investigated the influence of strain and parity on loss of entire litters of C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice using data from a breeding colony. In total, 344 C57BL/6 and 146 BALB/c litters were included. We found a considerable mortality rate for both strains: 32% of C57BL/6 litters and 20% for BALB/c litters were lost. There was a significant difference in survival of the first litter between strains, with 3.6 times higher odds of mortality in C57BL/6 mice (p = 0.0028). Parity or previous parental experience of litter loss did, however, not affect litter loss. The scientific literature does not provide a clear picture of perinatal mortality in laboratory mice. Very few studies report perinatal mortality, and only a handful of papers exist where mortality was systematically studied; this area is thus poorly understood. If perinatal mortality in mice is not recognized and investigated, but instead considered normal when breeding mice, a serious welfare problem might be overlooked.