Assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to the prevalence of sheep scab among communal sheep farmers in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Background and Aim

Sheep scab is one of the most contagious diseases of sheep found in rural communities worldwide and is a major health and welfare concern for sheep farming. Information on the attitudes of communal farmers to sheep scab remains speculative in the Eastern Cape Province. This study aimed to investigate knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to the prevalence of sheep scab among communal sheep farmers in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.

Materials and Methods

From June to August 2022, a cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured questionnaire (n = 160) was conducted in two rural communities of the Enoch Mgijima Local Municipality in Eastern Cape Province. Purpose sampling was used to obtain respondents' knowledge, attitudes, and management practices regarding sheep scabs.

Results

Among respondents, 81% were males and 19% were females. The majority of sheep farmers (59%) in both communities were aware of sheep scabs, but the majority (64%) did not receive any farming training. The majority of sheep farmers (65%) believed that sheep scab was the most serious threat to their sheep production since it increased mortality. In the past 3 years, approximately 57% of respondents reported an increase in the prevalence of sheep scab. The majority of farmers reported wool loss as the most noticeable clinical symptom (73%). More than 80% of sheep farmers do not use acaricide on a regular basis. Sixty-one percent of farmers prefer a pour-on topical application method. The frequency of annual dipping was every fortnight (40%), during summer and winter (24%). Most farmers (66%) regularly vaccinate their sheep.

Conclusion

The prevalence of sheep scab is increasing in these communities; however, a better understanding of the factors that facilitate its transmission is required to allow improved management and control of this disease. The government must involve extension officers and distribute them to disseminate information to farmers. Thus, it will be easy to translate the literature into action.

Polyphasic Characterization of Brucella spp. in Livestock Slaughtered from Abattoirs in Eastern Cape, South Africa

In livestock, brucellosis is mainly an asymptomatic disease except when abortion occurs; therefore, two serological tests are used for diagnosis as no single test is suitable. Abattoir samples enable a combination of culture, molecular, and serological tests to detect brucellosis. This study assessed Brucella-specific PCR (ITS-PCR) to detect brucellosis and to conduct a molecular characterization of Brucella spp. isolated from PCR-positive livestock (n = 565) slaughtered at abattoirs and the appropriate sample tissue(s). ITS-PCR detected Brucella DNA in 33.6% of cattle, 14.5% of sheep, and 4.7% of pig tissues. Impure Brucella cultures from PCR-positive tissues were 43.6% (44/94) of cattle, 51.7% (15/29) of sheep, and 50% (2/4) of pigs with predominantly B. abortus identification with AMOS-PCR and low isolation of mixed B. abortus and B. melitensis in all species. In cattle, 33% of isolates were from lymph nodes, while in sheep 38.0% were from the liver and kidney and only from tonsils in pigs (2/4). Brucella infections identified with AMOS-PCR were present in seropositive and mainly seronegative (75.6-100%) livestock with the potential to cause brucellosis during pregnancy or breeding. This study demonstrated the value of the polyphasic approach, especially with chronic infections and the potential risk of these asymptomatic animals.

Mobile Colistin Resistance (mcr) Gene-Containing Organisms in Poultry Sector in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Epidemiology, Characteristics, and One Health Control Strategies

Mobile colistin resistance (mcr) genes (mcr-1 to mcr-10) are plasmid-encoded genes that threaten the clinical utility of colistin (COL), one of the highest-priority critically important antibiotics (HP-CIAs) used to treat infections caused by multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant bacteria in humans and animals. For more than six decades, COL has been used largely unregulated in the poultry sector in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and this has led to the development/spread of mcr gene-containing bacteria (MGCB). The prevalence rates of mcr-positive organisms from the poultry sector in LMICs between January 1970 and May 2023 range between 0.51% and 58.8%. Through horizontal gene transfer, conjugative plasmids possessing insertion sequences (ISs) (especially ISApl1), transposons (predominantly Tn6330), and integrons have enhanced the spread of mcr-1, mcr-2, mcr-3, mcr-4, mcr-5, mcr-7, mcr-8, mcr-9, and mcr-10 in the poultry sector in LMICs. These genes are harboured by Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus, Salmonella, Cronobacter, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Shigella, Providencia, Aeromonas, Raoultella, Pseudomonas, and Acinetobacter species, belonging to diverse clones. The mcr-1, mcr-3, and mcr-10 genes have also been integrated into the chromosomes of these bacteria and are mobilizable by ISs and integrative conjugative elements. These bacteria often coexpress mcr with virulence genes and other genes conferring resistance to HP-CIAs, such as extended-spectrum cephalosporins, carbapenems, fosfomycin, fluoroquinolone, and tigecycline. The transmission routes and dynamics of MGCB from the poultry sector in LMICs within the One Health triad include contact with poultry birds, feed/drinking water, manure, poultry farmers and their farm workwear, farming equipment, the consumption and sale of contaminated poultry meat/egg and associated products, etc. The use of pre/probiotics and other non-antimicrobial alternatives in the raising of birds, the judicious use of non-critically important antibiotics for therapy, the banning of nontherapeutic COL use, improved vaccination, biosecurity, hand hygiene and sanitization, the development of rapid diagnostic test kits, and the intensified surveillance of mcr genes, among others, could effectively control the spread of MGCB from the poultry sector in LMICs.

Culling and mortality of dairy cows: why it happens and how it can be mitigated

The United Nations estimates that the global population will total 9.7 billion in 2050. Rapid population growth pose a significant obstacle to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly eradicating hunger and poverty. In view of the expanding population growth, food production ideally should triple to prevent massive food shortages. Sustainable food and nutrition security is the focal point of the dairy industry. Dairy production plays a pivotal role in addressing and advancing global food and nutrition security. It serves as a major source of protein, calcium, and phosphorus in many families in developing countries with a fast-growing population. Consequently, the dairy industry is expected to grow by approximately 26% in the next 10 years and produce an estimated 1077 million tonnes of milk by 2050. However, the growth and distribution of the dairy industry is limited by many factors such as culling and mortality of dairy cows. Several studies highlight reproduction failures, old age, poor milk yield, diseases (mastitis, lameness, and dystocia), and heat stress as some reasons for culling of dairy cows. Hence, this review highlights the factors influencing culling and mortality in dairy production farms, and discusses mitigating measures to limit culling.

Epidemiology and Traits of Mobile Colistin Resistance (mcr) Gene-Bearing Organisms from Horses

Mobile colistin resistance (mcr) genes (mcr-1 to mcr-10) threaten the efficacy of colistin (COL), a polymyxin antibiotic that is used as a last-line agent for the treatment of deadly infections caused by multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant bacteria in humans and animals. COL has been used for more than 60 years for the prophylactic control and treatment of infections in livestock husbandry but not in horses. Polymyxin B is used for the prophylactic control and empirical treatment of infections in horses without conducting sensitivity tests. The lack of sensitivity testing exerts selection pressure for the acquisition of the mcr gene. By horizontal transfer, mcr-1, mcr-5, and mcr-9 have disseminated among horse populations globally and are harbored by Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, and Salmonella species. Conjugative plasmids, insertion sequences, and transposons are the backbone of mcr genes in the isolates, which co-express genes conferring multi- to extensive-drug resistance, including genes encoding extended-spectrum β-lactamase, ampicillinase C, fosfomycin, and fluoroquinolone resistance, and virulence genes. The transmission of mcr genes to/among bacterial strains of equine origin is non-clonal. Contact with horses, horse manure, feed/drinking water, farmers, farmers’ clothing/farm equipment, the consumption of contaminated horse meat and its associated products, and the trading of horses, horse meat, and their associated products are routes for the transmission of mcr-gene-bearing bacteria in, to, and from the equine industry.

A Systematic Review of Climate Change Risks to Communal Livestock Production and Response Strategies in South Africa

Livestock offers substantial opportunities for food security and sustainable development with appropriate adaptation to climate change. Nowadays, climate change is among the critical problems facing less privileged rural people directly depending on livestock to survive. This paper aimed to analyse the existing literature and identify knowledge gaps about climate change impacts and response strategies in rural livestock production of South Africa. The study utilized a systematic literature review with key search terms such as “climate change” (weather, variability), “livestock” (monogastric*ruminants), “impact” (heat stress; feeds; pasture; production; reproduction; health; vector-diseases), and “adaptation” (strategies; vulnerability; risks; resilience). The search was run through scientific databases such as Google scholar, Science direct, Cab direct, Sabinet and Sematic scholar, targeting titles, abstracts and keywords. From the 62 suitable peer-reviewed publications examined in the current paper, five limitations were discovered, namely: (1) limited contextual studies of South Africa’s rural livestock farming communities; (2) a silo approach to investigations on impacts and adaptation in rural livestock production; (3) drawbacks on mixed crop-livestock systems as an effective response to climate change; (4) limited studies on monogastric livestock in rural communities; and (5) geographic underrepresentation of research progress in different provinces within the country. The study recommended improving geographic coverage of literature and inclusion of non-ruminants exposed to different climatic shocks. It is further advised that to gain effective responses to climate change impacts, mitigation strategies should be context-specific and holistic to improve livestock production in rural farming communities.

Effect of Teucrium trifidum powder on some meat quality attributes of chevon under refrigerated storage

We investigated the effect of T. trifidum on the shelf-life and quality of chevon kept for eight days at 4 ± 1 °C in polyethylene pouches. Different powder levels of T. trifidum (0.5 %, 1.0 %, and 2.0 % w/w) and 0.02 % w/w butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) were used to treat the chevon samples. The T. trifidum and BHT treated chevon was compared to untreated chevon (control). Colour, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), lactic acid bacteria (LAB) counts, oxidative stability, pH and total viable counts (TVC) were all measured while the samples were in storage. Treatment demonstrated a significant (P < 0.05) influence on pH with chevon preserved with T. trifidum powder (2 %), having a lower pH than the chevon preserved with BHT and the control. The colour of chevon (lightness, redness and yellowness) was shown to differ (P < 0.05) across treatments. The redness (a∗) and yellowness (b∗) reduced as the refrigeration period lengthened (P < 0.05).

In contrast, the lightness (L∗) of chevon intensified as the storage period lengthened (P < 0.05). The TBARS considerably reduced (P < 0.05) in samples subjected to T. trifidum powder and BHT, with respect to the untreated sample. There was an increase in the FRAP activity as the amount of T. trifidum powder (P < 0.05) was increased. The FRAP values were shown to be inversely related to the TBARS values, implying that the addition of T. trifidum powder could slow lipid oxidation. In comparison with the control, T. trifidum powder inhibited bacterial growth during storage as measured by a significant reduction in TVC and LAB counts (P < 0.05). It is concluded that, T. trifidum powder has potent antioxidant and antimicrobial activity in refrigerated ground chevon thus can be potentially used to preserve the quality of refrigerator stored ground chevon.

Body condition scores, fluke intensity, liver pathology, and carcass quality of different dairy cattle genotypes infected with Fasciola species at high throughput abattoirs in South Africa

Milk is an essential commodity whose demand far exceeds supply. However, dairy animal productivity is constantly hampered by parasitic diseases such as fasciolosis, affecting milk production. Despite the negative impact of liver fluke on milk production, there is little information on liver fluke infection and associated abattoir losses (body weight, condition score, liver pathology, and carcass quality) in culled dairy cattle. This study aimed to determine body condition scores, fluke intensity, liver pathology, and carcass quality of different cattle genotypes infected with Fasciola species at three commercial abattoirs. A longitudinal study was conducted from September 2019 to October 2020 to determine body condition score, liver fluke intensity, liver pathology in 3065 dairy cattle slaughtered in CA1, CA2, and CA3, of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa. Liver fluke intensity significantly increased with cattle age (P < 0.0001). Cattle ≥ 7 years old (59.93 ± 6.42) and those 4 to 6 years old (49.78 ± 9.98) had higher infection than those 2 to 3 years old (27.55 ± 13.68). The liver fluke infection was significantly (P < 0.001) the highest when sampling was conducted in summer, followed by autumn and winter, and least for spring. The differences in carcass weights or body condition scores decreased by 0.99 units (P < 0.0001) or 0.97 units (P < 0.0001) respectively. Therefore, this study suggests that fluke infection could be responsible for considerable economic and production losses mainly due to condemnation and weight loss in dairy cattle. This study recommended a combination of holistic and grazing management to control infection rates in dairy herds.

Acaricide resistance of Rhipicephalus decoloratus ticks collected from communal grazing cattle in South Africa

Objective:

This study aimed to determine acaricide resistance in Rhipicephalus decoloratus ticks collected from grazing cattle between November 2018 and May 2019 in Elundini, Senqu, and Walter Sisulu Local Municipalities in the northeastern region of the Eastern Cape Province.

Materials and Methods:

A sample of 20–30 adult engorged female R.decoloratus ticks were collected from at least 10 randomly selected cattle (highly tick-infested) at each dip tank and placed into the labelled plastic collection bottles containing absorbent paper and with a perforated lid at a constant room temperature of ±28°C and >70% relative humidity until resistance testing commenced. The Shaw larval immersion test method was used to determine R. decoloratus larvae resistance to various acaricide concentration levels [amidines, organophosphate (OP), and synthetic pyrethroids (SPs)].

Results:

This study found that most ticks were susceptible to exposure to different acaricide field concentrations of amidines (49% at 250 ppm), OPs (33% and 47% at 300 ppm and 500 ppm, respectively), and SPs (44% and 23% at 150 ppm and 300 ppm, respectively). The resistance testing results showed no resistance to amidines at any localities and no resistance to OP in the Senqu region. However, resistance development of the larvae to amines, OPs, and SPs was extensively observed in Senqu (18%, 6%, and 7%), Elundini (15%, 15%, and 17%), and Walter Sisulu (13%, 19%, and 9%) regions, respectively.

Conclusions:

The larvae’s resistance is a cause for worry. Hence, the continuous monitoring of tick resistance to commonly used acaricides will help mitigate widespread acaricidal resistance and sustain livestock productivity.

A 6-year retrospective report of livestock parasitic diseases in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Background:

Parasites contribute significantly to the decline of livestock production and productivity and consequently hamper the availability of protein food resources.

Aim:

This study aims to report the prevalence of parasitic diseases in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP), South Africa.

Method:

Retrospective data of animal diseases in the ECP from 2013 to 2018 was obtained from the veterinary unit of the Department of Rural and Agrarian Reform database, decoded analyzed, and interpreted.

Results:

The results reveal a significant association (p < 0.05) between local municipality, seasons, year, and livestock species. Endoparasites (75%) were the highest reported in the year 2015, whereas ectoparasites (38.1%) and fly parasites (30.4%) were mostly reported in the year 2016. The highest prevalence of fly parasites and endoparasites was found in autumn (87%) and spring (75%). The local municipalities with the highest prevalence were Amahlathi (fly parasite, 91.3%), Dr Beyers Naude (ectoparasite, 43.6%), Intsika Yethu (endoparasite, 75%), Makana (protozoa, 45.8%), Mbhashe (hemoparasite, 40%), Raymond Mhlaba municipality (hemoparasite, 12.5%), and Lukhanji (fly parasite, 8.7%). Parasitic diseases diagnosed in the province between 2013 and 2018 were babesiosis (1.7%), anaplasmosis (2.1%), distomatosis (0.1%), goat mange (0.2%), and sheep scab (94%).

Conclusion:

The prevalence of parasitic diseases was found unevenly distributed in the local municipalities of the ECP and mostly diagnosed in autumn and spring compared to summer and winter. This study provides baseline information to guide policy-making on disease preventative actions. The recommended action would include appropriate and timely use of acaricide to mitigate problems associated with parasitic diseases.

Communal sheep farmer’s knowledge and attitudes on the incidence of gastrointestinal parasites in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

Objective:

Gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) negatively impact small ruminant production and productivity nationwide, particularly in tropical and sub-tropic regions. Amongst other nematodes, Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, and Teladorsagia circumcincta are the most common species in small ruminants animals. Thus, this study aimed to investigate communal sheep farmer’s knowledge and attitudes toward GIPs in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.

Materials and Methods:

A cross-sectional survey was conducted between September and November 2018 from three agro-ecological zones, namely, arid region, semi-humid, and humid. All data from this study were analysed with the Statistical Analysis System.

Results:

Of the total of 107 farmers who participated in the study, 69% were males, and 38% were females. Most livestock owners (85%) were aged >46 years old across all the study areas. The majority of farmers (83%) perceived that their animals are susceptible to wireworm (H. contortus) during the hot-wet season, followed by the hot-dry season (14%), with relatively low during the cold season (2%). Most farmers (85%) interviewed revealed that lambs are more exposed to parasitic infection, than mature sheep (15%) across all agro-eco­logical zones. An insignificant number of farmers (8%) with knowledge about GIPs life cycle and its biology (92%) across all agro-ecological zones. This study reveals a significant increase in the occurrence of GIPs over the past few years across all agro-ecological, with largely (67%) attributed to the resistance of the strain to deworming remedies and changes in climatic weather patterns (33%). The farming experience was strongly (p < 0.05) associated with the farmer’s gender and age. Helminths were reported significantly higher (p < 0.05) in humid zones than in other agro-ecological zones.

Conclusions:

This study concludes that most farmers perceived lambs as more susceptible to GIPs than old sheep. Therefore, farmers should be enlightened about the infection and transmission dynamics of the GIPs to develop appropriate control measures against worm infection to boost sheep production in the study area. It was also suggested that farmers should adhere to remedial instruction and adopt rotational deworming programs to avoid anthelmintic resistance.

Culling and mortality of dairy cows: why it happens and how it can be mitigated

The United Nations estimates that the global population will total 9.7 billion in 2050. Rapid population growth pose a significant obstacle to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly eradicating hunger and poverty. In view of the expanding population growth, food production ideally should triple to prevent massive food shortages. Sustainable food and nutrition security is the focal point of the dairy industry. Dairy production plays a pivotal role in addressing and advancing global food and nutrition security. It serves as a major source of protein, calcium, and phosphorus in many families in developing countries with a fast-growing population. Consequently, the dairy industry is expected to grow by approximately 26% in the next 10 years and produce an estimated 1077 million tonnes of milk by 2050. However, the growth and distribution of the dairy industry is limited by many factors such as culling and mortality of dairy cows. Several studies highlight reproduction failures, old age, poor milk yield, diseases (mastitis, lameness, and dystocia), and heat stress as some reasons for culling of dairy cows. Hence, this review highlights the factors influencing culling and mortality in dairy production farms, and discusses mitigating measures to limit culling.

Potential sources and characteristic occurrence of mobile colistin resistance (mcr) gene-harbouring bacteria recovered from the poultry sector: a literature synthesis specific to high-income countries

Understanding the sources, prevalence, phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of mcr gene-harbouring bacteria (MGHB) in the poultry sector is crucial to supplement existing information. Through this, the plasmid-mediated colistin resistance (PMCR) could be tackled to improve food safety and reduce public health risks. Therefore, we conducted a literature synthesis of potential sources and characteristic occurrence of MGHB recovered from the poultry sector specific to the high-income countries (HICs). Colistin (COL) is a last-resort antibiotic used for treating deadly infections. For more than 60 years, COL has been used in the poultry sector globally, including the HICs. The emergence and rapid spread of mobile COL resistance (mcr) genes threaten the clinical use of COL. Currently, ten mcr genes (mcr-1 to mcr-10) have been described. By horizontal and vertical transfer, the mcr-1, mcr-2, mcr-3, mcr-4, mcr-5, and mcr-9 genes have disseminated in the poultry sector in HICs, thus posing a grave danger to animal and human health, as harboured by Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella species, and Aeromonas isolates. Conjugative and non-conjugative plasmids are the major backbones for mcr in poultry isolates from HICs. The mcr-1, mcr-3 and mcr-9 have been integrated into the chromosome, making them persist among the clones. Transposons, insertion sequences (IS), especially ISApl1 located downstream and upstream of mcr, and integrons also drive the COL resistance in isolates recovered from the poultry sector in HICs. Genes coding multi-and extensive-drug resistance and virulence factors are often co-carried with mcr on chromosome and plasmids in poultry isolates. Transmission of mcr to/among poultry strains in HICs is clonally unrestricted. Additionally, the contact with poultry birds, manure, meat/egg, farmer's wears/farm equipment, consumption of contaminated poultry meat/egg and associated products, and trade of poultry-related products continue to serve as transmission routes of MGHB in HICs. Indeed, the policymakers, especially those involved in antimicrobial resistance and agricultural and poultry sector stakeholders-clinical microbiologists, farmers, veterinarians, occupational health clinicians and related specialists, consumers, and the general public will find this current literature synthesis very useful.

Is Africa ready for mobile colistin resistance threat?

Antimicrobial resistance is a growing public health problem and a threat to effective treatment and prevention of an array of infections caused by bacteria. Africa is already faced with many socio-economic and health crises. Many countries in Africa can seldom boast of a standardized health care facility comparable to those in developed countries. Yet, the non-therapeutic use of COL has been banned in developed countries. However, in Africa, except for South Africa, COL is an over-the-counter (OTC) medication sold and dispensed by non-professionals/without a veterinarian's supervision. The ban of non-therapeutic COL in developed countries has proven to reduce the development of mobile colistin resistance (MCR) in humans and animals. The unregulated use of COL has been proven to select pathogenic and commensal bacteria resistance. A transmissible plasmid-mediated colistin determinant, mobile COL resistance (mcr) gene, which is rapidly transferred/acquired horizontally or laterally intra/inter-species/genera, has been reported. A highly promiscuous mobile genetic element like plasmids containing transposons, insertion sequences, and integrons aid the carriage/rapid transfer and acquisition of these mcr genes. Hence, we highlight the danger posed by escalating colistin (COL) resistance in the continent and the impetus to halt the indiscriminate and non-therapeutic use of COL to protect public health.

Preventing and managing antimicrobial resistance in the African region: A scoping review protocol

Introduction

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) constitutes a significant threat to global health and food security, typically associated with high morbidity and mortality rate. The high burden of infectious diseases coupled with the weak health systems in most countries of Africa magnifies the risk of increasing AMR and its consequences thereof. This scoping review will be aimed at mapping the evidence on interventions used to prevent and manage antimicrobial resistance in Africa, guided by the “One Health” concept.

Methods

We will consider interventions targeting multiple sectors such as health care systems, the agricultural and veterinary sectors. The outcomes to be considered include reduction of AMR decreased morbidity and mortality due to infectious diseases, increased awareness for rational use of antimicrobials and reduced antibiotic consumption. We will include all types of studies regardless of study designs conducted within the context of the WHO African region. Studies will be excluded if they are not conducted in Africa and if they are literature reviews, only describing the concept of AMR without mentioning interventions.

We will include studies identified through a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed and grey literature databases. In addition, we will search the reference lists of included studies and relevant reviews. Finally, we plan to do a citation search for included studies. Findings of this review will be narratively synthesized.

Global epidemiology of coronavirus disease 2019 and lessons for effective control of this and future pandemics

Barely 1 year after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first reported in China, the virus has infected approximately 120 million people, caused around 3 million deaths, and adversely affected the global economy. Despite stringent measures to flatten the epidemiologic curve of the pandemic, there have been spikes and waves of the infection in many countries, particularly in the American, European, and Asian continents. This review critically evaluated the global epidemiology of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) to provide advice on other possible ways of managing the disease as various COVID-19 vaccines are being rolled out. To effectively control this and possible future epidemics/pandemics, there is a need to maintain a healthy balance between saving lives and livelihoods in the implementation of lockdowns. Unwarranted human exposures to animals, particularly pangolins, civet cats, bats, dromedary camels, and other wildlife known to be reservoirs and intermediate hosts of coronaviruses should be prevented. All the identified strains of SARS-CoV-2, including the highly infectious UK and South African variants, should be incorporated in COVID-19 vaccine production; to widen the protection spectrum. Some of the COVID-19 vaccines require primary inoculation, booster vaccination after 2-4 weeks and annual revaccination for adequate immunization against SARS-CoV-2. Survivors of COVID-19 may require only a single vaccine dozing and annual revaccination thereafter. Adoption of One Health approach and the development of globally coordinated active surveillance systems against emerging and reemerging zoonotic viruses are imperative.

Prevalence of serum antibodies of tick-borne diseases and the presence of Rhipicephalus microplus in communal grazing cattle in the north-eastern region of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

A survey to determine the prevalence of tick-borne diseases (TBDs) and ticks infesting cattle was conducted in the communal areas of the north-eastern region of the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) between January 2019 and October 2019. Tick counts, packed cell volume (PCV), body condition scores (BCS), and serological test for TBDs were seasonally conducted in communally grazed cattle (n = 240) in Joe Gqabi district in two local municipalities (Elundini and Senqu). A standard indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) was used to determine antibodies to Babesia bigemina, Babesia bovis, and Ehrlichia ruminantium and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was employed for antibodies to Anaplasma marginale detection. The highest tick loads were observed on cattle during the hot-wet and post-rainy seasons and lowest during the cool-dry season. The E. ruminantium prevalence in Elundini was 16% and 14% in post-rainy and hot-dry seasons respectively and 15% at Senqu during the post-rainy season. B. bigemina prevalence was highest at Elundini (18%) and Senqu (16%) during the post-rainy season and hot-wet season respectively. Cattle BCS was negatively correlated with E. ruminantium (P < 0.01; r = - 0.203), B. bovis (P < 0.01; r = - 0.125), and A. marginale (P < 0.01; r = - 0.122) seroprevalence. The PCV was negatively correlated with B. bigemina (P < 0.01; r = - 0.138) seroprevalence. On the other hand, E. ruminantium was positively correlated with Amblyomma hebraeum (P < 0.05; r = 0.112) infestation, while B. bovis (P < 0.05; r = 0.134) and B. bigemina (P < 0.05; r = 0.188) were positively correlated with Rhipicephalus microplus infestation, and B. bigemina (P < 0.05; r = 0.077) was positively correlated with Rhipicephalus decoloratus infestation. Our study reports for the first time the presence of R. microplus in the study area. Further research is, however, needed to better understand seroprevalence and the transmission mode of TBDs to cattle so that effective disease control measures can be developed.

Antimicrobial Resistance Phenotype of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli Isolates Obtained from Meat in the Formal and Informal Sectors in South Africa

BACKGROUND

Foodborne diseases (FBD) caused by resistant pathogens are a global public health problem. One main driver of the increasing FBD incidence is the transfer of pathogenic organisms from animal guts to carcasses during processing and subsequent transfer from meat products to consumers.

METHODS

In this study, meat samples from abattoirs in the formal meat sector (FMS) (n = 140) and slaughter points in the informal meat sector (IMS) (n = 104) were collected for microbial detection and phenotypic AMR determination using polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

The antibiogram of Staphylococcus aureus isolates revealed that resistance to clindamycin (74.3%) and ampicillin (59.5%) was highest in the FMS, while resistance to penicillin (83.8%) and tetracycline (82.1%) was highest in the IMS. Escherichia coli isolates show significant resistance to chloramphenicol (90.7%) and tetracycline (82.3%) in the FMS. Likewise, resistance to tetracycline (92.3%) and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (87.5%) was highest in the IMS. The multiple antibiotic resistance index (MARI) for S. aureus and E. coli ranged from 0.3 to 0.8 and 0.2 to 0.5, respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests high-level contamination of meat with resistant pathogens and highlights the public health consequences associated with consuming such unhygienic products.

Treatment of COVID-19: implications for antimicrobial resistance in Africa

There is currently no approved pharmaceutical product for the treatment of COVID-19. However, antibiotics are currently being used for the management of COVID-19 patients in many settings either treat to co-infections or for the treatment of COVID-19 itself. In this commentary, we highlight that the increased rates of antimicrobial prescribing for COVID-19 patients could further worsen the burden of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). We also highlight that though AMR is a global threat, Africa tends to suffer most from the consequences. We, therefore, call on African countries not to lose sight of the possible implications of the treatment of COVID-19 on AMR and a need to redouble efforts towards the fight against AMR while dealing with the pandemic.

Microbiological quality of beef, mutton, and water from different abattoirs in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Background and Aim:

Abattoir processes from skinning, evisceration, to chilling usually lead to meat contamination by foodborne pathogens. Hence, continual microbial surveillance of slaughter carcasses by veterinary public health officials is key to preventing contamination and outbreak of meat-related foodborne diseases. This study was conducted to determine the Enterobacteriaceae count and aerobic plate count (APC) and to detect Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. in meat and water from selected slaughter facilities.

Materials and Methods:

Retrospective data (n=100) collected in 2017 by the Provincial Veterinary Department of the Eastern Cape Province from abattoirs and prospective survey data of meat (n=50) collected in 2018 from abattoirs in the Eastern Cape Province were utilized in this study. APC and Enterobacteriaceae were enumerated from the samples. In addition, Salmonella and E. coli were isolated from samples using selective media.

Results:

The APC in both retrospective and prospective studies for all samples ranged between 2 and 4.50 log CFU/cm²; similar counts of 2-4.00 log CFU/cm² were recorded for Enterobacteriaceae. No significant difference (p>0.05) for APC and Enterobacteriaceae count across all meat types was noted. Salmonella and E. coli were detected in 50% of beef. E. coli was not detected from mutton, but Salmonella was found in 66.7%. Moreover, 91.7% of the water samples had E. coli, but none had Salmonella.

Conclusion:

The levels of Enterobacteriaceae and APC observed in meat satisfy regulatory conditions outlined by the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, South Africa and show that meat produced from these abattoirs is of acceptable microbial quality. However, the quality of water used in the abattoirs does not meet the requirements set by the government, and contributes to contamination of meat produced in the abattoirs under study. Therefore, we recommend that sources of water be continuously investigated to eliminate or reduce the risk of contamination of meat processed in the abattoirs.

In vitro efficacy of Elephantorrhiza elephantina root extracts against adult Paramphistomum cervi in goats

Elephantorrhiza elephantina is a medicinally important plant whose roots are used to control gastrointestinal parasites in goats. The use of plant-based anthelmintics as potential alternatives to synthetic anthelmintics in controlling gastrointestinal worms in ruminants is a promising area of research. The study was carried out to ascertain the efficacy of E. elephantina in controlling goat trematodes. Standard procedures were used to quantify the phytochemicals in the water, ethanol and methanol root extracts of E. elephantina. The quantitative phytochemical analysis revealed that alkaloids (93.24 ± 1.68%), condensed tannins (450.52 ± 0.15 mg CE/g), flavonoids (803.93 ± 0.13 mg QE/g), phenols (476.11 ± 0.37 mg GAE/g) and saponins (83.28 ± 1.72%) were present in E. elephantina root extracts. Paramphistomum cervi adult worms recovered from the rumen of freshly slaughtered goats were used. In vitro screening of ethanol, methanol and water extracts of E. elephantina for potential anthelmintic activity against adult P. cervi worm motility showed time and dose-dependent significant effects. Ethanol extracts showed a highly significant (P < 0.05) inhibition of motility (86.67 and 96.67%) at concentrations 7.5 and 15 mg/mL respectively, after 12 h of treatment, while methanol and water extracts exhibited a significant (P < 0.05) inhibition of motility (96.67 and 66.67% respectively) at concentration of 15 mg/mL 16 h post-exposure. Our findings confirm the efficacy of E. elephantina in controlling goat trematodes.

Primiparous and multiparous Friesland, Jersey, and crossbred cows' behavior around parturition time at the pasture-based system in South Africa

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to assess the behavioral attributes of primiparous and multiparous Friesland, Jersey, and Crossbred cows around calving time in a pasture-based dairy system.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 120 pregnant cows were used in the study, comprising of 40 cows per genotype in different parities [A-primiparous (n = 10), B-2 to 4 (n = 10), C-5 and 6 (n = 10), and D-7 and 8 (n = 10)] and kept in a maternity paddock. Five observers monitored cows from the onset of parturition until the calves were fully expelled, recording the frequency and duration of lying, standing, and walking bouts, calf licking, and suckling.

RESULTS

There were differences (p < 0.05) observed in the behavioral patterns around the time of calving. Jersey multiparous cows spent (p < 0.05) significantly most of their time (20.50 ± 3.10) in lying position as compared to the other genotypes. The Jersey cows also spent most (p < 0.05) of their time (48.00 ± 0.34) in a standing position during the calving period. Friesland cows spent (p < 0.05) most of their time (12.00 ± 1.19) exhibiting either stepping or walking attributes as compared to Jersey and Crossbred cows. The Jersey genotype spent significantly (p < 0.05) more time (123.00 ± 10.43) in expelling their calves compared to the other genotypes. There was a significant (p < 0.05) interaction between genotypes and parity on time spent by cows on licking their calves. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) observed between the genotypes of the primiparous cow.

CONCLUSION

The primiparous cows spent most of their time in standing and the least amount of time in other activities throughout the trial due to the lack of maternal experience. The current study revealed that behavioral activities differ according to genotype and parity.

Prevalence and distribution of antimicrobial resistance determinants of Escherichia coli isolates obtained from meat in South Africa

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to characterise antibiotics resistance of Escherichia coli isolates from the formal meat sector (FMS) and informal meat sectors (INMS).

METHOD

A total of 162 and 102 E. coli isolates from the FMS, and INMS respectively were isolated by standard culture-based, and biochemical reactions. The isolates were further confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The disc diffusion method was used to screen for antimicrobial susceptibility against 19 different antibiotics. The presence of class 1-2 integrons in each E. coli isolates was assessed using 3'-CS and 5'-CS regions specific primers.

RESULT

Among the 19 antimicrobials, resistance to tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, cephalosporins, and nitrofurans were found to be more frequent than carbapenems and chloramphenicol. The number of multi-drug resistance ranged from three to ten antimicrobials. The resistant determinants with the highest prevalence in the FMS and INMS were; [aminoglycosides: aadA (40.6%; 31.9%), and strA (6.5%; 9.4%)], [β-lactams: ampC (20%; 45%),], [Chloramphenicol: catI (1.7%; 1.7%), and [tetracyclines: tetB (11.5%; 24%),], and [sulfonamides: sul1 (22.2%; 26.7%),].

CONCLUSION

Higher phenotypic resistance to cephalosporins and carbapenems were found in the FMS than in INMS. The multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) indexes for FMS and INMS ranged from 0.2-0.5. The results reveal a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant E. coli isolates and resistance determinants, suggesting that consumers and handlers of such meat are at risk of contracting antibiotic-resistant E. coli-related foodborne disease.

Comparative effects of methanol and oil extracts of Ocimum gratissimum on testicular morphology and epididymal sperm reserve of adult male albino rats (Wistar strain)

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Ocimum gratissimum (OG) did not affect the sperm liveability and concentration of wister rat.

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Ocimum gratissimum had no significant difference in the body weight, epididymal weight, left and right testes weight compared with the control group.

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Mean testosterone level did not differ in all group treated with OG.

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No overt pathological lesions were apparent in the seminiferous epithelia or the interstitial spaces of the testes.

Fertility control with medicinal plants has been reported in the ancient and modern medical literature. In this research, the effects of methanol and oil extracts of Ocimum gratissimum (OG) on testicular morphology and epididymal sperm reserve were investigated in adult male Wistar rats. Fifty-five rats divided into 5 groups A-E of 11 rats each was used for this study. Methanol and oil extracts of Ocimum gratissimum were administered at two doses 250 and 500 mg/kg for 28 days. Animals in control group A received distilled water for the same duration. At day 14 and 28 of the study, five animals were sacrificed from each group, and their blood and testes samples were collected for the analysis. Spermiogram, testicular biometry, serum testosterone assay, and testicular morphology were assessed from harvested testes. The results revealed that there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in serum testosterone level. There was also no significant difference (p > 0.05) in sperm volume, livability and abnormalities but there was significant differences (p < 0.05) in the sperm motility and concentration. Testicular biometry and testicular morphology between control and treated groups did not reveal any significant differences (p > 0.05). The study showed that methanol and oil extracts of Ocimum gratissimum (OG) did not have any inhibitory effect on the reproductive function and fertility of adult male albino rats. Further works should be carried out on isolated active fractions of this plant on male fertility.

Molecular characterisation of antibiotic-resistant Salmonella enterica isolates recovered from meat in South Africa

Salmonella enterica is a leading cause of human gastroenteritis in both developed and developing countries, causing significant economic losses on humans and animals worldwide. There are several routes for contracting salmonellosis, but the consumption of contaminated foods is by far the most frequent cause of human infections. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and resistance determinants of S. enterica isolates obtained from meat. Swab samples from meat were cultured for the identification of Salmonella spp., and 239 presumptive S. enterica isolates were recovered, purified and kept in glycerol stocks. The S. enterica. confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were further tested against 15 antimicrobials using the disc-diffusion method on Muller-Hinton agar and the genotypic antimicrobial resistance determinants by PCR. Resistance among tetracyclines, bêta-lactams, and 3rd generation cephalosporins was found to be most frequent with a noticeable rise in the number of multi-drug resistance ranging from two to seven antimicrobials. A total of 20 resistance determinants were assessed with their prevalence and distributions obtained as follows; [aminoglycosides: aadA (89%), aacC2 (100%), aphA1 (38%), aphA2 (0%) and strA (7%)], [β-lactams: (ampC 100%), blaTEM, (33%), blaZ (17%) and blaOXA (10%)], [Chloramphenicol: catI (9%), catII (7%), and cmIA1 (10%)] and [tetracyclines: tetA (57%), tetB (30%), tetC (11%), tetD (73%), tetK (20%) and tetM, (43%)], and [sulfonamides: sulI (82%), sulII (7%)]. The findings signify a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) S. enterica isolates and resistance determinants indicating increased public health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated meat.

Prevalence of Haemonchus contortus Infections in Sheep and Goats in Nyagatare District, Rwanda

This study investigated the overall prevalence of Haemonchus contortus infection in sheep and goats from five purposively selected subdivisions (sectors) of Nyagatare district from January to December 2014, after a high prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites and generalized poor productivity was reported in small ruminants in some districts of Rwanda. Faecal egg counts (FEC) were performed using the Modified Wisconsin Sugar Floatation method and the Fluorescent-labeled peanut-lectin agglutination test while enumerations, as log (FEC), were done using the modified McMaster method. The overall prevalence of H. contortus infection in sheep and goats was 75.7% (n=949). The overall prevalence of H. contortus infection in sheep (83.4%, n=314) was higher than in goats (71.8%, n=635) (Odds Ratio [OR] 1.98, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.40-2.79, and p≤0.001). The prevalence of H. contortus infection in female goats (74.2%) was higher than in male goats (64.3%) (OR 1.60, 95% CI: 1.09-2.36, and p=0.01). The prevalence of H. contortus infection in goats from Nyagatare was higher than in goats from Matimba (OR 3.25, 95% CI: 1.76-5.99, and p≤0.001) and from Katabagemu (OR 3.67, 95% CI: 2.04-6.59, and p≤0.001). The prevalence of H. contortus infection in goats from Karangazi was higher than in goats from Matimba (OR 4.72, 95% CI: 2.40-9.28, and p≤0.001). The overall mean monthly log (FEC) for H. contortus in sheep and goats were highest in April (18.9±0.2 and 14.05±0.1, respectively) and October (19.25± 0.2 and 13.75±0.1, respectively). Though, overall, sheep in Nyagatare district were at greater risk of H. contortus infection and goats from Nyagatare and Karangazi sectors were paradoxically at greater risk of H. contortus infection. It was also apparent that young female goats were at greater risk of H. contortus infection than young male goats. H. contortus infection is endemic in small ruminants in Nyagatare district and possibly other districts in Rwanda. Targeted selective treatment (TST) using FAMACHA with emphasis on low-lying swampy pastures and appropriate anthelmintic drugs may be the most economically viable solution in the short term. In the long term breeding of H. contortus resistant small ruminants and strategic grazing using the concept of refugia may bring about considerable relief from H. contortus infection in Nyagatare district, in particular, and Rwanda at large.

Aerobic Mesophilic, Coliform, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus Counts of Raw Meat from the Formal and Informal Meat Sectors in South Africa

Foodborne disease (FBD) is a global public health concern, and foods from animal sources have been associated with outbreaks of food-related illness. In this study, animal carcasses from the two abattoirs (HT1 and HT2) in the formal meat sector (FMS) and slaughter points in the informal meat sector (INMS) were examined at two stages of slaughter (before washing and after washing) for aerobic colony counts (ACC) and total viable count (TCC), as well as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus count. At each stage, carcasses were sampled by swabbing at the neck, brisket, flank, and rump. ACC for beef, mutton, and pork carcasses at HT1 and HT2 before washing were between 2.5–5.8, 2.2–4.7, and 2.7–3.7 mean log CFU/cm², respectively, and TCC count before washing was highest on the neck of cattle (6.3 ± 2.4) and after washing was highest on the perineal of sheep (5.7 ± 6.9). In the INMS, TCC count was highest on the brisket (6.9 ± 3.2) and in the neck (5.5 ± 2.4). Higher ACC values of 6.2–6.7 mean log CFU/cm² were obtained in the INMS. The highest count for E. coli (4.2 mean log CFU/cm²) after washing was in the neck, while the highest count for S. aureus (4.0 mean log CFU/cm²) was in the flank. All bacteria count in the INMS exceeded acceptable limits, and washing did not significantly reduce microbial load in meat in the FMS and INMS. Bacteria count in the FMS and INMS exceeded acceptable standards. However, meat processed in the INMS poses a more significant risk of FBD to consumers.

Factors responsible for the post-slaughter loss of carcass and offal's in abattoirs in South Africa

Global demand for food is surging upward due to the expansion of human population. Hence food production and supply need to double with little or no waste to meet this demand. Food loss at any point in the farm to fork chain inhibits the stability of food security at household and national level. A retrospective (AR) and a post mortem meat inspection (PMMI) study to identify major causes of offal and carcass condemnation was conducted in three abattoirs namely, Adeliade, Queenstown and East London abattoirs represented as AD, QT, and EL respectively. The retrospective study revealed the main causes of tongue condemnation as abscess (0.08%, 0.03% and 0.05%) and actinobacillosis (0.02%, 0% and 0.02%) respectively. The spleen was condemned due to abscess (0.35%, 0.94% and 0.17%) and splenomegaly (0.21%, 0.55% and 0.2%). The heart was condemned due to cyst (0.24%, 0.36% and 0.2%) and inflammation (0.9%, 1.85%, and 0.75%). While the kidney, was condemned due to cyst (0.08%, 0.23% and 0.16%) and nephritis (0.94%, 1.01% and 1.18%). However, a greater percentage of condemnation was recorded during the active abattoir study. During the same period, partial carcass condemnations were mainly due to bruises (63.3%, 50.4% and 41.0%), abscess (7%, 6% and 14%) and improper evisceration (19%, 31% and 27%). The combined monetary loss due to offal's and carcass condemnation during the AR and PMMI study was estimated as ZAR 255194.4 (34191.5 USD) and ZAR 25958.8 (2570.2 USD) respectively. This study identified major causes of offals and carcass condemnation as abscess, bruises, actinobacillosis, cyst, inflammatory conditions and improper evisceration. It can be used as starting point information for early warning on livestock diseases of economic loss in South Africa.

Seasonal prevalence, body condition score and risk factors of bovine fasciolosis in South Africa

Fasciolosis is an important zoonotic disease that is responsible for a significant loss in food resource and animal productivity. The objectives of this study were to determine the seasonal prevalence and risk factors associated with Fasciola infection in cattle. The results were obtained by coprology, antemortem and post-mortem survey of three abattoirs (HTPA1, n = 500, HTPA2, n = 400, and LTPA, n = 220). The seasonal prevalence of Fasciola infection was 10.4%, 12.8% and 10.9%, during summer, 11.2%, 10.8% and 8.6%, during autumn, 9.8%, 6.5% and 5.9% during winter and 8.2%, 7.8% and 5.9%, during spring in the three abattoirs HTPA1, HTPA and LTPA respectively. There was a significant association (p < 0.05) between the intensity of infection and body condition score (BCS) of cattle at each abattoir. Factors such as age [HTPA1 (OR = 3.6, CI = 1.2, 10.2), and LTPA (OR = 3.8, CI= 2.4, 6.1)], sex [LTPA (OR = 4.2, CI= 2.5, 7.0)], breed [HTPA2 (OR = 2.3, CI = 1.3, 4.1) and LTPA (OR = 2.5, CI= 1.3, 5.0)] and BCS had significant (p < 0.01-0.001) influence on the prevalence of fasciolosis. In conclusion, the infection with Fasciola spp was higher in the summer than in the winter; a positive association was established between the prevalence of fasciolosis and poor body condition in study animals. This study, therefore, suggests that fasciolosis could be causing substantial production losses, mainly due to cattle weight loss and liver condemnation.

Association between the Prevalence of Indigestible Foreign Objects in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Slaughtered Cattle and Body Condition Score

It is estimated that South Africa's population will be above 65 million in 2050. Thus, food production needs to triple to alleviate poverty and food insecurity. However, infectious and non-infectious diseases affect livestock productivity, thereby hampering food supply. Non-infectious disease/conditions caused by the consumption of solid waste material are rarely reported. Hence, this study investigates the occurrence and type of indigestible foreign objects (IFOs) in the stomach of slaughtered cattle in two high-throughput abattoirs (n = 4424) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The study revealed that metallic and non-metallic indigestible objects had an overall prevalence of 63% in cattle slaughtered in Queenstown abattoir (QTA, (n = 1906)) and 64.8% at the East London abattoir (ELA, (n = 2518)). Most of the IFOs were found in the rumen (64.2% and 70.8%) and reticulum (28.5% and 20.6%) at QTA and ELA respectively. The leading IFOs in the stomach of cattle at QTA were plastics (27.7%), poly bezoars (10.7%) and ropes (10.7%), while poly bezoars (19.8%), ropes (17.6%) and stones (10.7%) were the main IFOs seen in cattle at ELA. The study showed a statistical significance (p < 0.05) between body condition score and the prevalence of indigestible objects in cattle. The study concluded that litter and waste containing IFOs could pose a threat to livestock health and productivity. The practice of good animal husbandry and efficient solid waste management will mitigate the problem of animals consuming IFOs.

Financial loss estimation of bovine fasciolosis in slaughtered cattle in South Africa

South Africa's livestock population is rapidly evolving and consequently will require sustained epidemiological surveillance to detect and prevent diseases which contribute to a decrease in livestock productivity, public health risk and food wastage. Fasciola infection is one of the commonest diseases affecting livestock health and a significant portion of meat and offal's are declared unfit for human consumption. This study assessed the prevalence and monetary losses associated with Fasciola infection at three abattoirs in Eastern Cape Province. A retrospective data of all slaughtered cattle were obtained from Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform (DRDAR) from 2010–2012. A prospective abattoir survey was conducted between July 2013 and June 2014 to determine the prevalence and financial loss due to fasciolosis.

The highest prevalence was in December and January (23%) while the lowest prevalence was recorded in May and June (5%). Annual prevalence of Fasciola at abattoirs AB1, were (3.2%, 2.2% and 2.0%), AB2 (6.4%, 4.6% and 3.5%), AB3 (14.4%, 6.9% and 9.5%) for year 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively. The total financial loss due to Fasciola infection during the active survey of the three abattoirs was ZAR 44, 930 (3456.2 USD). A breakdown of this figure shows that whole liver condemnation was ZAR 25, 230 (2, 357 USD), and partial liver condemnation was ZAR 19, 700 (1515.4 USD).

The present study reveals the economic loss due to liver condemnation from Fasciola infection and provides regional baseline information regarding the prevalence of Fasciola in cattle at three abattoirs.

Relevance of the formal red meat classification system to the South African informal livestock sector

In 1992 the South African meat industry was deregulated and this led to the formation of the new Marketing of Agricultural Products Act, Act no. 47 of 1996. The Act made provisions for producers to sell animals to customers of their own choice at mutually agreed prices. Thus, producers in the informal sector took advantage of the free marketing system. The result was a substantial increase in the number of animals slaughtered in the informal sector. Unfortunately the requirements for animal identification are not always observed in this sector. Challenges faced by communal farmers which include the multipurpose roles of livestock, lack of slaughter facilities within reasonable distance and lack of access to market information make them less willing to sell their animals through the formal market. The formal market is characterised by meat inspection and carcass classification which scare away the communal farmers for fear of income loss through animal condemnation. The informal sector might not recognise the importance of formal carcass classification. There is need to direct research and development efforts to address marketing constraints faced by communal farmers, and to promote formal marketing of livestock for meat quality assurance and a fair return to the farmers. This review seeks to assess the relevance of formal classification of red meat carcasses to the informal sector, make recommendations on ways to ameliorate the undesirable effect of the classification system on the informal sector, and identify possible areas which need further research to develop the classification system in South Africa.Keywords: Communal farmers, marketing system, meat industry