Socio-economic inequality in oral health in childhood to young adulthood, despite full dental coverage

The aim of this cross‐sectional study was to assess differences in caries experience according to socio‐economic status (SES) in a health‐care system with full coverage of dental costs for children up to the age of 18 yr. In 2011 and 2014, by performing hurdle negative binomial models, we obtained data on 3,022 children and young adults aged 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, and 23 yr, living in four cities in the Netherlands. At all ages between 5 and 23 yr, the percentages of children with caries‐free dentitions were lower and mean caries experience were higher in low‐SES than in high‐SES participants. In 5‐yr‐old children with dmft > 0, mean caries experience was 3.6 in those with low SES and 2.3 in those with high SES. In 23‐yr‐old participants, these estimates were 6.8 and 4.4, respectively (P < 0.05). Low‐SES children have a greater risk of more caries experience than high‐SES children. Thus, in a system with full free paediatric dental coverage, socio‐economic inequality in caries experience still exists. Dental health professionals, well‐child care doctors and nurses, general practitioners, and elementary school teachers should collaborate to promote oral health at the community level, with specific targeting of low‐SES families. We further need policy measures to curtail, at community level, the increasing availability and consumption of highly processed, carbohydrate‐rich foods, with particular attention for low‐SES families.

Evidence Based Weighing Policy during the First Week to Prevent Neonatal Hypernatremic Dehydration while Breastfeeding

BACKGROUND

Neonatal hypernatremic dehydration is prevented by daily neonatal weight monitoring. We aim to provide evidence-based support of this universally promoted weighing policy and to establish the most crucial days of weighing.

METHODS

Weight measurements of 2,359 healthy newborns and of 271 newborns with clinical hypernatremic dehydration were used within the first seven days of life to simulate various weighting policies to prevent hypernatremic dehydration; its sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value (PPV) of these policies were calculated. Various referral criteria were also evaluated.

RESULTS

A policy of daily weighing with a cut-off value of -2.5 Standard Deviation Score (SDS) on the growth chart for weight loss, had a 97.6% sensitivity, 97.6% specificity and a PPV of 2.80%. Weighing at birth and only at days two, four and seven with the same -2.5 SDS cut-off, resulted in 97.3% sensitivity, 98.5% specificity and a PPV of 4.43%.

CONCLUSION

A weighing policy with measurements restricted to birth and day two, four and seven applying the -2.5 SDS cut-off seems an optimal policy to detect hypernatremic dehydration. Therefore we recommend to preferably weigh newborns at least on day two (i.e. ~48h), four and seven, and refer them to clinical pediatric care if their weight loss increases below -2.5 SDS. We also suggest lactation support for the mother, full clinical assessment of the infant and weighing again the following day in all newborns reaching a weight loss below -2.0 SDS.

Prevalence and pattern of alcohol consumption during pregnancy in the Netherlands

Objective

To estimate the prevalence of alcohol consumption during pregnancy in the Netherlands in 2007 and 2010.

Method

During two identical, nation-wide surveys in 2007 and 2010, questionnaires were handed out to mothers of infants aged ≤6 months who visited a Well-Baby Clinic. By means of the questionnaire mothers were, in addition to questions on infant feeding practices and background variables, asked about their alcohol consumption before, during and after pregnancy. Logistic regression analyses were used to look into relationships of alcohol consumption with maternal and infant characteristics.

Results

We obtained 2,715 questionnaires in 2007, and 1,410 in 2010. Within 6 months before pregnancy, 69 % of women consumed alcohol (data from 2010). During pregnancy 22 % consumed alcohol in 2007, 19 % in 2010. During the first three months of pregnancy, 17 % (2007) and 14 % (2010) of mothers consumed alcohol. Alcohol consumption was mainly one glass (~10 g alcohol) on less than one occasion per month. Compared to 2007, in 2010 more women consumed 1–3 or >3 glasses alcohol per occasion (resp. 11 % to 7 % and 1.4 to 0.7 %). Older women and those with a higher education consumed more alcohol, as did smokers. Birth weight, gestational age and weight for gestational age were not associated with alcohol consumption. In 2007 and 2010, 2.5 % resp. 2.4 % of pregnant women both smoked and consumed alcohol; resp. 70 % and 75 % did neither.

Conclusion

In contrast to Dutch guidelines which advice to completely abstain from alcohol, one in five women in the Netherlands consume alcohol during pregnancy.

Weight fluctuation during childhood and cardiometabolic risk at young adulthood

OBJECTIVES

To test the hypothesis that greater weight fluctuation between 2 and 6 years is associated with an increase in weight measures (such as body mass index [BMI]) and cardiometabolic risk in young adulthood.

STUDY DESIGN

Weight fluctuation (determined by BMI SD scores) was measured at least 3 times between the ages of 2 and 6 years in 166 girls and 116 boys from the Terneuzen Birth Cohort. Cardiometabolic risk factors in young adulthood include components of the metabolic syndrome and weight. The extent of weight fluctuation was determined by assessing each individual's SE (or variation) around each individual's linear regression slope (or weight slope). The obtained variation scores were subsequently related to adult BMI, other weight measures, and cardiometabolic risk factors.

RESULTS

In girls, greater weight fluctuation between 2 and 6 years was statistically significantly related to greater adult weight measures (1.08; 95% CI 1.01-1.15) and nonsignificantly with the metabolic syndrome. For boys weight fluctuation was not associated with adult weight (1.04; 95% CI 0.97-1.11), but weight slope was statistically significantly associated with adult overweight.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that weight fluctuations during early childhood are predictive for adult overweight in girls. For boys weight slope instead of weight fluctuation is predictive for adult overweight.

Charts for weight loss to detect hypernatremic dehydration and prevent formula supplementing

BACKGROUND

Most breast-fed newborns get the milk they need. However, very rarely milk intake is insufficient mostly as a result of poor breastfeeding techniques. Dramatic weight loss and hypernatremic dehydration may occur. Our aim was to construct charts for weight loss.

METHODS

A case-control study was performed. Charts with standard deviation score (SDS) lines for weight loss in the first month were constructed for 2,359 healthy breast-fed term newborns and 271 cases with breastfeeding-associated hypernatremic dehydration with serum sodium level > 149 mEq/L. Day 0 was defined as the day of birth.

RESULTS

Many cases with (or who will develop) hypernatremic dehydration (84%; +1 SDS line) fell below the -1 SDS line at day 3, the -2 SDS line at day 4, and the -2.5 SDS line at day 5 in the chart of the healthy breast-fed newborns. Weight loss of cases with permanent residual symptoms was far below the -2.5 SDS.

CONCLUSIONS

Already at an early age, weight loss differs between healthy breast-fed newborns and those with hypernatremic dehydration. Charts for weight loss are, therefore, useful tools to detect early, or prevent newborns from developing, breastfeeding-associated hypernatremic dehydration, and also to prevent unnecessary formula supplementing.

Mainstream and special school attendance among a Dutch cohort of children with Down Syndrome

Object

To determine the level of mainstream education in a nationwide cohort of adolescents with Down Syndrome (DS), and to find characteristics related to mainstream or special school attendance.

Method

Dutch children with DS born in 1992, 1993 or 1994, were assessed when 16–19 years old. Parents scored school enrolment between the age of 4–18 years, general characteristics and the levels of intellectual disability using the Dutch Social Competence Rating Scale. Associations between disability and years in mainstream school were assessed by ordinal logistic regression, adjusting for sex and parental education.

Results

We collected data from 170 boys and 152 girls (response 63%); mean age 18.3 years (ranges 16.8–19.9). Intellectual disability was mostly moderate (43%). Most children (74%) entered mainstream education between 4 and 6 years of age. At 13 years 17% was in mainstream school and 7% stayed in up to 16 years. From the age of 8 years onwards the majority was in special education, while 6% never attended school. Girls were more often in mainstream school and stayed in longer. Level of disability was significantly associated with number of years in mainstream education.

Conclusion

Three out of four Dutch children with DS entered mainstream primary education, however late entry and high dropout are common.

[Young people with Down syndrome: independence and social functioning]

OBJECTIVE

To determine the level of independence and social functioning in young people with Down syndrome.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHOD

Via the Dutch Down Syndrome Foundation (Stichting Downsyndroom), we asked parents of children with Down syndrome born in 1992, 1993 or 1994 to complete a written questionnaire about their child. This questionnaire contained the following standardised lists: the 'Dutch social competence rating scale for people with a learning disability', the 'Child behaviour checklist' and the 'Children's social behaviour questionnaire', and additional questions on background characteristics. The results of this Dutch cohort were compared with available data on peers without Down syndrome.

RESULTS

Data from 322 young people with Down syndrome, mean age 18.4 years (range 16.8-19.9 years), were collected (response 63%). Almost 60% of participants mastered basic skills of independent functioning, such as maintaining adequate standards of personal hygiene, preparing breakfast and being able to spend at least 30 minutes at home alone. About 10% of the participants had basic skills such as cooking and paying in a shop. Nine out of ten participants had more problems with social functioning than peers without Down syndrome, mainly with social interaction, processing information and regulating their emotions. Half of the participants had clinically relevant behavioural problems.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study show that young people with Down syndrome have limited practical and social skills, and more behavioural problems than their peers without Down syndrome. In daily life they are to a greater or lesser extent dependent on others, and need lifelong support.

Problem behavior of individuals with Down syndrome in a nationwide cohort assessed in late adolescence

OBJECTIVE

To assess problem behavior in adolescents with Down syndrome and examine the association with sex and severity of intellectual disability.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional data of a Dutch nationwide cohort of Down syndrome children aged 16-19 years were collected using a written parental questionnaire. Problem behavior was measured using the Child Behavior Checklist and compared with normative data. The degree of intellectual disability was determined using the Dutch Social competence rating scale.

RESULTS

The response rate was 62.8% (322/513), and the mean age 18.3 years (SD ± 0.8). The total score for problem behavior was higher in adolescents with Down syndrome than in adolescents without Down syndrome (26.8 vs 16.5; P < .001). Overall, 51% of adolescents with Down syndrome had problem scores in the clinical or borderline range on 1 or more Child Behavior Checklist subscales; this is more than twice as high as adolescents without Down syndrome. Adolescents with Down syndrome had more internalizing problems than their counterparts without Down syndrome (14% and 9%, respectively, in the clinical range); the percentages for externalizing problems were almost equal (7% and 9%, respectively, in the clinical range). The highest problem scores in adolescents with Down syndrome were observed on the social problems and thought problems subscales (large to very large standardized differences). Male sex and/or more severe mental disabilities were associated with more behavioral problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Serious problem behavior is more prevalent in adolescents with Down syndrome. This demonstrates the need for a focus on general behavior improvement and on the detection and treatment of specific psychopathology in individuals with Down syndrome.

Prevalence of overweight in Dutch children with Down syndrome

OBJECTIVE

Prevalence of overweight in children is increasing, causing various health problems. This study aims to establish growth references for weight and to assess the prevalence rates of overweight and obesity in a nationwide sample of Dutch children with Down syndrome (DS), taking into account the influence of comorbidity.

METHODS

In 2009, longitudinal growth data from Dutch children with trisomy 21 who were born after 1982 were retrospectively collected from medical records of 25 Dutch regional specialized DS centers. "Healthy" was defined as not having concomitant disorders or having only a mild congenital heart defect. Weight and BMI references were calculated by using the LMS method, and prevalence rates of overweight and obesity by using cutoff values for BMI as defined by the International Obesity Task Force. Differences in prevalence rates were tested by multilevel logistic regression analyses to adjust for gender and age.

RESULTS

Growth data of 1596 children with DS were analyzed. Compared with the general Dutch population, healthy children with DS were more often overweight (25.5% vs 13.3% in boys, and 32.0% vs 14.9% in girls) and obese (4.2% vs 1.8%, and 5.1% vs 2.2%, respectively). Prevalence rates of overweight between DS children with or without concomitant disorders did not vary significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

Dutch children with DS have alarmingly high prevalence rates of overweight and obesity during childhood and adolescence. Health care professionals should be aware of the risk of overweight and obesity in children with DS to prevent complications.

Identifying young children without overweight at high risk for adult overweight: the Terneuzen Birth Cohort

OBJECTIVE

To develop a tool to identify children with high risk of adult overweight (AO), especially before developing overweight, based on body mass index (BMI) standard deviation score(s) (SDS) changes between 2-6 years (y) of age.

METHODS

We fitted a linear spline model to BMI SDS of 762 young Caucasian adults from the Terneuzen Birth Cohort at fixed ages between birth and 18 y. By linear regression analysis, we assessed the increase in explained variance of the adult BMI SDS by adding the BMI SDS at 2 y to the models including the BMI SDS at 4 y, 6 y and both 4 y and 6 y. AO risk was modelled by logistic regression. The internal validity was estimated using bootstrap techniques. Risk models were represented as risk score diagrams by gender for the age intervals 2-4 y and 2-6 y.

RESULTS

In addition to the BMI SDS at certain ages, the previous BMI SDS during childhood is positively related to adult weight. Receiver Operating Curves analysis provides insight into sensible cut-offs (AUC varied from 0.76 to 0.83). The sensitivity and specificity for 2-6 y at the cut-off of 0.25 and 0.5 are respectively, 0.76 and 0.74, and 0.36 and 0.93, whereas the PPV is 0.52 and 0.67, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk score diagrams can serve as a tool for young children for primary prevention of adult overweight. To avoid wrongly designating children at risk for AO, we propose a cut-off with a high specificity at the risk of approximately 0.5. After external validation, wider adoption of this tool might enhance primary AO prevention.

The Terneuzen Birth Cohort: BMI change between 2 and 6 years is most predictive of adult cardiometabolic risk

Background

We recently reported the age interval 2–6y being the earliest and most critical for adult overweight. We now aim to determine which age intervals are predictive of cardiometabolic risk at young adulthood.

Methods and Findings

We analyzed data from 642 18–28 years olds from the Terneuzen Birth Cohort. Individual BMI SDS trajectories were fitted by a piecewise linear model. By multiple regression analyses relationships were assessed between subsequent conditional BMI SDS changes and components of the metabolic syndrome (MetS), skinfold thickness and hsCRP at young adulthood. Results were adjusted for gender and age, and other confounders. Gender was studied as an effect modifier. All BMI SDS changes throughout childhood were related to waist circumference and skinfold thickness. No other significant relationship was found before the age of 2 years, except between the BMI SDS change 0–1y and hsCRP. Fasting blood glucose was not predicted by any BMI SDS change. BMI SDS change 2–6y was strongly related to most outcome variables, especially to waist circumference (ß 0.47, SE 0.02), systolic and diastolic blood pressure (ß 0.20 SE 0.04 and ß 0.19 SE 0.03), and hsCRP (ß 0.16 SE 0.04). The BMI SDS change 10–18y was most strongly related to HDL cholesterol (ß -0.10, SE 0.03), and triglycerides (ß 0.21, SE 0.03). To a lesser degree, the BMI SDS change 6–10y was related to most outcome variables. BMI SDS changes 2–6y and 10–18y were significantly related to MetS: the OR was respectively 3.39 (95%CI 2.33–4.94) and 2.84 (95%CI 1.94–4.15).

Conclusion

BMI SDS changes from 2y onwards were related to cardiometabolic risk at young adulthood, the age interval 2–6y being the most predictive. Monitoring and stabilizing the BMI SDS of children as young as 2–6y may not only reverse the progression towards adult overweight, but it may also safeguard cardiometabolic status.

Clustering of socioeconomic, behavioural, and neonatal risk factors for infant health in pregnant smokers

Background

Tobacco smoking is a major cause of morbidity and mortality, including during pregnancy. Although effective ways of promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy exist, the impact of these interventions has not been studied at a national level. We estimated the prevalence of smoking throughout pregnancy in the Netherlands and quantified associations of maternal smoking throughout pregnancy with socioeconomic, behavioural, and neonatal risk factors for infant health and development.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Data of five national surveys, containing records of 14,553 Dutch mothers and their offspring were analyzed. From 2001 to 2007, the overall rate of smoking throughout pregnancy fell by 42% (from 13.2% to 7.6%) mainly as a result of a decrease among highly educated women. In the lowest-educated group, the overall rate of smoking throughout pregnancy was six times as high as in the highest-educated group (18.7% versus 3.2%). Prenatal tobacco smoke exposure was associated with increased risk of extremely preterm (≤28 completed weeks) (OR 7.25; 95% CI 3.40 to 15.38) and small-for-gestational age (SGA) infants (OR 3.08; 95% CI 2.66 to 3.57). Smoking-attributable risk percents in the population (based on adjusted risk ratios) were estimated at 29% for extremely preterm births and at 17% for SGA outcomes. Infants of smokers were more likely to experience significant alcohol exposure in utero (OR 2.08; 95%CI 1.25 to 3.45) and formula feeding in early life (OR 1.91; 95% CI 1.69 to 2.16).

Conclusions

The rates of maternal smoking throughout pregnancy decreased significantly in the Netherlands from 2001 to 2007. If pregnant women were to cease tobacco use completely, an estimated 29% of extremely preterm births and 17% of SGA infants may be avoided annually.

Breastfeeding duration related to practised contraception in the Netherlands

AIM

The aim of this study was to gain insight into contraception practised and related to breastfeeding duration.

METHODS

Mothers with infants up to 6 months received a questionnaire on infant feeding (breast or formula feeding) and contraception (hormonal or non-hormonal methods). Estimates of the time interval between resuming contraception and cessation of lactation was calculated by Chained Equations Multiple Imputation.

RESULTS

Of all women (n = 2710), 30% choose condoms, 22% the combined oral contraceptive pill (OCP) and few other methods. Breastfeeding was started by 80%, and 18% continued up to 6 months. Of the breastfeeding mothers, 5% used hormonal contraception; 7% of women who used hormonal contraception practised breastfeeding. After adjustment for background variables, the use of OCP is strongly associated with formula feeding: after delivery to the third month postpartum, the crude OR being 17.5 (95% CI: 11.3-27.0), the adjusted OR 14.5 (9.3-22.5); between the third and sixth month postpartum, respectively, 13.1 (95% CI: 8.6-19.9) and 11.7 (7.6-17.9). Of all breastfeeding women, 20-27% resumed OCP at 25 weeks postpartum and 80% introduced formula feeding. The time lag between these events is 6 weeks. Hormonal contraception was resumed after formula introduction.

CONCLUSION

Mothers avoid hormonal contraception during lactation; they change to formula feeding 6 weeks before they resume the OCP. To effectively promote longer duration of breastfeeding, the BFHI needs to address contraception as practised.

Identifying metabolic syndrome without blood tests in young adults--the Terneuzen Birth Cohort

BACKGROUND

Within the context of the obesity epidemic identifying young adults at risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease is important. A practical approach is based on the identification of metabolic syndrome (MetS). Our objective was to develop a simple and efficient stepwise strategy to identify MetS in young adults.

METHODS

Subjects were part of a birth cohort (n = 2599) in Terneuzen, The Netherlands, born in 1977-86. In 2004-05: 642 of these young adults participated in a physical examination and blood tests. Tree regression was used to determine the optimal decision strategy to identify MetS.

RESULTS

Overall prevalence of MetS, defined according to the NCEP ATPIII, was 7.5%. The tree regression yielded an optimal stepwise strategy that eliminated the need for blood tests for the diagnosis of MetS in 50-90% of the cases, depending on the accepted level of error. A large group (52% of the total) with BMI <35 had a normal waist circumference (WC) and normal blood pressure (BP). None of them had MetS. Subjects with BMI > or =35 all had MetS. If BMI <30, 38% had an increased WC or increased BP with a risk of MetS of only 6%. So for them the omission of blood tests could also be considered.

CONCLUSION

In most young adults MetS can be identified or excluded without blood tests by a simple and stepwise strategy, based on the measurement of BMI, WC and BP. This makes it possible to develop simple prevention strategies for young adults at risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

Ethnic variation in infant-feeding practices in the Netherlands and weight gain at 4 months

This prospective study of 4438 infants (0-4 months) examined differences in infant-feeding patterns in relation to the ethnic origin of their mothers, based on the mother's native language: Dutch (87%), Turkish (4%), Moroccan (3%), other European languages (3%), and various other languages (4%). Breastfeeding at birth varied between 75% and 94%. Dutch and Moroccan mothers breastfed for a shorter period (32% and 37% at 4 months, respectively) than did Turkish mothers and mothers with a native European language other than Dutch (47% and 51% at 4 months, respectively; P < .001). Of all mothers, 71% started exclusive breastfeeding at birth, and 21% continued exclusive breastfeeding for at least 4 months. The reasons why mothers discontinued breastfeeding (both exclusive breastfeeding and breastfeeding) were generally infant related. The average weight gain between birth and day 133 was 3.45, 3.87, and 3.69 kg for Dutch, Turkish, and Moroccan infants, respectively. Weight gain was influenced by ethnicity of the mothers and exclusive breastfeeding.

Prevalence, neonatal characteristics, and first-year mortality of Down syndrome: a national study

OBJECTIVE

To determine the prevalence, neonatal characteristics, and first-year mortality in Down syndrome (DS) among children in The Netherlands.

STUDY DESIGN

The number of DS births registered by the Dutch Paediatric Surveillance Unit (DPSU) in 2003 was compared with total live births (reference population) and perinatal registrations.

RESULTS

The prevalence of DS was 16 per 10,000 live births. Compared with the reference population, the 182 children with trisomy 21 had a gestational age of 38 weeks versus 39.1 weeks (P < .001), a birth weight of 3119 g versus 3525 g in males (P < .001) and 2901 g versus 3389 g in females (P < .001), and mothers with a parity of > or = 4.17% versus 5% (P < .001) and a mean age of 33.6 years versus 31 years (P < .001) and 33% (n = 54) > or = 36 years). The mean age of DS diagnosis was 10.2 days in nonhospital deliveries and 1.8 days in hospital deliveries (P < .001). Children with DS were less often breast-fed (P < .05), and 86% (n = 156) were hospitalized after birth. Neonatal and infant mortality were higher in DS, 1.65% versus 0.36% (P < .02) and 4% versus 0.48% (P < 0.001), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of DS in The Netherlands exceeds previously reported levels and is influenced by the mother's age. Neonatal and infant DS mortality have declined, but still exceed those in the reference population.

Reference chart for relative weight change to detect hypernatraemic dehydration

OBJECTIVE

The validity of the rule of thumb that infants may have a weight loss of 10% in the first days after birth is unknown. We assessed the validity of this and other rules to detect breast-fed infants with hypernatraemic dehydration.

DESIGN

A reference chart for relative weight change was constructed by the LMS method. The reference group was obtained by a retrospective cohort study.

PARTICIPANTS

1544 healthy, exclusively breast-fed infants with 3075 weight measurements born in the Netherlands and 83 cases of breast-fed infants with hypernatraemic dehydration obtained from literature.

RESULTS

The rule of thumb had a sensitivity of 90.4%, a specificity of 98.3% and a positive predictive value of 3.7%. Referring infants if their weight change is below -2.5 SDS (0.6th centile) in the reference chart in the first week of life and using the rule of thumb in the second week had a sensitivity of 85.5%, a specificity of 99.4% and a positive predictive value of 9.2%.

CONCLUSIONS

The rule of thumb is likely to produce too many false positive results, assuming that for screening purposes the specificity needs to be high. A chart for relative weight change can be helpful to detect infants with hypernatraemic dehydration.