Differential costs for the non-adult ADHD population in Catalonia

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is young children's most common mental health disorder. We aim to provide causal estimates of the differential costs for the non-adult population with ADHD. We used longitudinal administrative data covering the non-adult population over five years and different healthcare providers (general practitioners, hospitalisations and emergency departments, visits to mental healthcare centres-day-care or hospitals) of 1,101,215 individuals in Catalonia (Spain). We also include the consumption of pharmaceuticals and cognitive therapies. We instrumented ADHD diagnosis by the probability of being diagnosed by the most visited healthcare provider based on individual monthly visits to the provider in which this visit was related to ADHD and the density of professionals in the different mental health providers. After using matching procedures to include a proper control group, we estimated two-part and finite mixture models. Our results indicate that ADHD children and adolescents displayed 610€ higher annual health direct costs compared to not diagnosed counterparts. We provide average costs disentangling the sample by age boundaries, gender, and comorbidities to offer values for cost-effective analyses and incremental costs after diagnosis, which is around 400€. A significant differential annual direct health cost for the non-adult population with ADHD is determined, which will be helpful for cost-effectiveness analysis and complete cost-of-illness studies.

Inequity and benefit incidence analysis in healthcare use among Syrian refugees in Egypt

BACKGROUND

The Syrian conflict has created the worst humanitarian refugee crisis of our time, with the largest number of people displaced. Many have sought refuge in Egypt, where they are provided with the same access to healthcare services as Egyptian citizens. Nevertheless, in addition to the existing shortcomings of the Egyptian health system, many obstacles specifically limit refugees' access to healthcare. This study looks to assess equity across levels of care after observing services utilization among the Syrian refugees, and look at the humanitarian dilemma when facing resource allocation and the protection of the most vulnerable.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was used and collected information related to access and utilization of outpatient and inpatient health services by Syrian refugees living in Egypt. We used concentration index (CI), horizontal inequity (HI) and benefit incidence analysis (BIA) to measure the inequity in the use of healthcare services and distribution of funding. We decomposed inequalities in utilization, using a linear approximation of a probit model to measure the contribution of need, non-need and consumption influential factors.

RESULTS

We found pro-rich inequality and horizontal inequity in the probability of refugees' outpatient and inpatient health services utilization. Overall, poorer population groups have greater healthcare needs, while richer groups use the services more extensively. Decomposition analysis showed that the main contributor to inequality is socioeconomic status, with other elements such as large families, the presence of chronic disease and duration of asylum in Egypt further contributing to inequality. Benefit incidence analysis showed that the net benefit distribution of subsidies of UNHCR for outpatient and inpatient care is also pro-rich, after accounting for out-of-pocket expenditures.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that without equitable subsidies, poor refugees cannot afford healthcare services. To tackle health inequities, UNHCR and organisations will need to adapt programmes to address the social determinants of health, through interventions within many sectors. Our findings contribute to assessments of different levels of accessibility to healthcare services and uncover related sources of inequities that require further attention and advocacy by policymakers.

The Effect of Changes in Cost Sharing on the Consumption of Prescription and Over-the-Counter Medicines in Catalonia

Many universal health care systems have increased the share of the price of medicines paid by the patient to reduce the cost pressure faced after the Great Recession. This paper assesses the impact of cost-sharing changes on the propensity to consume prescription and over-the-counter medicines in Catalonia, a Spanish autonomous community, affected by three new cost-sharing policies implemented in 2012. We applied a quasi-experimental difference-in-difference method using data from 2010 to 2014. These reforms were heterogeneous across different groups of individuals, so we define three intervention groups: (i) middle-income working population—co-insurance rate changed from 40% to 50%; (ii) low/middle-income pensioners—from free full coverage to 10% co-insurance rate; (iii) unemployed individuals without benefits—from 40% co-insurance rate to free full coverage. Our control group was the low-income working population whose co-insurance rate remained unchanged. We estimated the effects on the overall population as well as on the group with long-term care needs. We evaluated the effect of these changes on the propensity to consume prescription or over-the-counter medicines, and explored the heterogeneity effects across seven therapeutic groups of prescription medicines. Our findings showed that, on average, these changes did not significantly change the propensity to consume prescription or over-the-counter medicines. Nonetheless, we observed that the propensity to consume prescription medicines for mental disorders significantly increased among unemployed without benefits, while the consumption of prescribed mental disorders medicines for low/middle-income pensioners with long-term care needs decreased after becoming no longer free. We conclude that the propensity to consume medicines was not affected by the new cost-sharing policies, except for mental disorders. However, our results do not preclude potential changes in the quantity of medicines individuals consume.

The impact of taxing sugar-sweetened beverages on cola purchasing in Catalonia: an approach to causal inference with time series cross-sectional data

Sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) taxes related to the quantity of sugar have appeared as a popular regulatory tool around the world during the last decade showing important variations in their implementation and impact. We evaluated the impact of a new SSB tax implemented in Catalonia since May 1, 2017 on the purchased quantities and penetration rates of taxed and untaxed cola beverages. We use aggregate time series of cola beverages purchases in all 17 Spanish Autonomous Communities before and after the implementation of the SBB tax in Catalonia, from January 2013 to June 2019. A comparison between two different types of causal inference methods was conducted: a two-way fixed effects difference in differences model and a modified synthetic control model. Regular cola purchases decreased 12.1% and their penetration rate decreased by 1.27 points during the two post-intervention years using the preferred model. Diet cola purchases increased 17.0% and their penetration rate also increased by 1.65 points. Only regular cola results were robust to all placebo test checks. The SSB tax implemented in Catalonia in 2017 significantly reduced the volume and penetration rates of regular colas with no robust evidence for the substitution effect on diet colas.

Free prescriptions for low-income pensioners? The cost of returning to free-of-charge drugs in the Spanish National Health Service

This study estimated the impact of reducing a capped low coinsurance rate for outpatient medicines to nil for low-income pensioners and disabled individuals in the Valencian Community (Spain). This reduction was implemented in January 2016 as a regional reform which modified the national cost-sharing reform adopted in July 2012. The impact of this intervention on the number of monthly prescriptions dispensed between July 2012 and December 2018 was estimated using two different approaches of the synthetic control method, the classical method and the method based on Bayesian structural time series. The estimates from both methods were similar, showing significant overall increases of 6.34% and 6.70% [95% credible interval: 4.05, 9.47], respectively in the number of prescriptions dispensed in this region. These results are similar to those of the previous studies indicating that reducing price from a small amount to zero discontinuously boosts demand. This evidence indicates that the impact of this intervention on the budget of the regional health service is far greater than the amount of the subsidy in the public budget. These results are useful for making accurate budgetary projections for similar eliminations of charges for low-income pensioners in the Spanish National Health Service.

Estimation of the Clinical and Economic Impact of an Improvement in Adherence Based on the Use of Once-Daily Single-Inhaler Triple Therapy in Patients with COPD

Background

Adherence to treatment is key to achieve desired outcomes. In COPD, adherence is generally suboptimal and is impaired by treatment complexity.

Objective

To estimate the clinical and economic impact of an improvement in treatment adherence due to an increased use of once-daily single-inhaler triple therapy (SITT) in patients with COPD.

Patients and Methods

A 7-state Markov model with monthly cycles was developed. Patients with moderate-to-very severe COPD, for whom triple therapy is indicated, were included. Outcomes and costs were estimated and compared for two scenarios: current distribution of adherent patients treated with multiple inhaler triple therapies (MITT) vs a potential scenario where patients shifted to once-daily SITT. In the potential scenario, adherence improvement due to once-daily SITT attributes was estimated. Costing was based on the Spanish National Health System (NHS) perspective (€2019). A 3-year time horizon was defined considering a 3% discount rate for both costs and outcomes.

Results

A target population of 185,111 patients with moderate-to-very severe COPD currently treated with MITT was estimated. A 20% increase in the use of once-daily SITT in the potential scenario raised adherence up to 52%. This resulted in 6835 exacerbations and 532 deaths avoided, with 775 LYs and 594 QALYs gained. Total savings reached €7,082,105. Exacerbation reduction accounted for 61.8% (€4,378,201) of savings.

Conclusion

Increasing the use of once-daily SITT in patients with moderate-to-very severe COPD treated with triple therapy would be associated with an improvement in adherence, a reduction of exacerbations and deaths, and cost savings for the Spanish NHS.

Price Models for Multi-indication Drugs: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Marketing of new and existing drugs with new indications used alone or in combination is increasing.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the advantages and disadvantages of indication-based pricing (IBP) systems for such drugs from the standpoint of economic theory, practical applications and international experiences.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review of published articles and reports using six bibliographic databases: PubMed, ASCO, Scopus, DARE, HTA and NHS EED. We also conducted a search of gray literature in Google Scholar. The same search terms were used as in Towse et al. (The debate on indication-based pricing in the U.S. and five major European countries. OHE Consulting Report, London, 2018). Articles and reports published from 1 January 2000 to 30 September 2018 were included.

RESULTS

A total of 26 studies met the inclusion criteria. There are three main types of IBP: different brands with different prices for each indication, an averaged single price for all indications and a single price with differential discounts. The studies indicate that IBP systems are premised on the idea that charging a different price for different indications reflects the differences in their value and in social willingness to pay for each one and for the investment in R&D based on the indication's incremental clinical benefit. Some argue that a uniform price reduces access and increases the price for lower-value indications, while others contend that if IBP sets prices at the maximum threshold of social willingness to pay for each indication, all surplus is transferred to the producer and consumer surplus is reduced to zero. No practical applications of pure IBP were found. Single pricing for drugs is the most prevalent approach. The system that most closely approximates an IBP model consists of agreements that are generally confidential and linked to risk-sharing agreements.

CONCLUSIONS

There are no applications of pure IBP systems and their practical consequences are therefore unknown. More economic theory-based assessments of the pros and cons of IBP and studies different from reviews are needed to capture their intricacies and specificities.

Economic Evaluation for Pricing and Reimbursement of New Drugs in Spain: Fable or Desideratum?

BACKGROUND

The economic evaluation of healthcare technologies has become in many countries a basic tool for reimbursement, pricing and purchasing decisions.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this article is to examine the institutional, legal, and political factors that have impeded the application of economic evaluation and the criterion of efficiency in the process of pricing and reimbursement of new medicines in Spain.

METHODS

Narrative description of the current institutional framework for the use of economic evaluation in pricing and reimbursement in Spain, legal and policy framework in the field of evaluation of new medicines, and stakeholder initiatives and policies related to the use of economic evaluation outside of the pricing and reimbursement process.

RESULTS

Spain has an institutional framework created and established over the last years that could have facilitated a formal use of economic evaluation in the process of pricing and reimbursement. Nevertheless, the real use of economic evaluation at the central or regional level is still unknown, although application of the efficiency criterion, linking to cost-effectiveness, has been clearly required by Spanish laws and regulations at the national level. We highlight a certain degree of moral hazard from the central government that is not directly responsible for the budget impact of reimbursement and pricing decisions. There are currently a number of ongoing initiatives in the field of economic evaluation by various agents, but they remain uncoordinated.

CONCLUSIONS

Poor governance at the highest level of decision making is the main reason for the lack of interest in economic evaluation. A profound political change, supported by transparency and accountability, is required before the criterion of efficiency can be fully considered in the process of pricing and reimbursement of new medicines in Spain.

Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of Improving clinicians' diagnostic and communication Skills on Antibiotic prescribing Appropriateness in patients with acute Cough in primary care in CATalonia (the ISAAC-CAT study): study protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial

Background

Despite their marginal benefit, about 60% of acute lower respiratory tract infections (ALRTIs) are currently treated with antibiotics in Catalonia. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of a continuous disease-focused intervention (C-reactive protein [CRP]) and an illness-focused intervention (enhancement of communication skills to optimise doctor-patient consultations) on antibiotic prescribing in patients with ALRTIs in Catalan primary care centres.

Methods/design

A cluster randomised, factorial, controlled trial aimed at including 20 primary care centres (N = 2940 patients) with patients older than 18 years of age presenting for a first consultation with an ALRTI will be included in the study. Primary care centres will be identified on the basis of socioeconomic data and antibiotic consumption. Centres will be randomly assigned according to hierarchical clustering to any of four trial arms: usual care, CRP testing, enhanced communication skills backed up with patient leaflets, or combined interventions. A cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analysis will be performed from the societal and national healthcare system perspectives, and the time horizon of the analysis will be 1 year. Two qualitative studies (pre- and post-clinical trial) aimed to identify the expectations and concerns of patients with ALRTIs and the barriers and facilitators of each intervention arm will be run. Family doctors and nurses assigned to the interventions will participate in a 2-h training workshop before the inception of the trial and will receive a monthly intervention-tailored training module during the year of the trial period. Primary outcomes will be antibiotic use within the first 6 weeks, duration of moderate to severe cough, and the quality-adjusted life-years. Secondary outcomes will be duration of illness and severity of cough measured using a symptom diary, healthcare re-consultations, hospital admissions, and complications. Healthcare costs will be considered and expressed in 2021 euros (year foreseen to finalise the study) of the current year of the analysis. Univariate and multivariate sensitivity analyses will be carried out.

Discussion

The ISAAC-CAT project will contribute to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of different strategies for more appropriate antibiotic prescribing that are currently out of the scope of the actual clinical guidelines.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03931577.

[What is an efficient health intervention in Spain in 2020?]

Fifteen years ago, Gaceta Sanitaria published the article entitled "What is an efficient health technology in Spain?" The growing interest in setting the price of new technologies based on the value they provide to health systems and the experience accumulated by the countries in our environment make it opportune to review what constitutes an efficient health intervention in Spain in 2020. Cost-effectiveness analysis continues to be the reference method to maximize social health outcomes with the available resources. The interpretation of its results requires establishing reference values that serve as a guide on what constitutes a reasonable value for the health care system. Efficiency thresholds must be flexible and dynamic, and they need to be updated periodically. Its application should be based on and transparency, and consider other factors that reflect social preferences. Although setting thresholds is down to political decision-makers, in Spain it could be reasonable to use thresholds of 25,000 and 60,000 Euros per QALY. However, currently, in addition to determining exact figures for the threshold, the key question is whether the Spanish National Health System is able and willing to implement a payment model based on value, towards achieving gradual financing decisions and, above all, to improve the predictability, consistency and transparency of the process.

Cost-utility analysis of second-generation direct-acting antivirals for hepatitis C: a systematic review

High prices of second-generation direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) patients led to reimbursement decisions based on cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY). Areas covered: We performed a systematic review of cost-utility analyses (CUA) comparing interventions with second-generation DAA therapies with no treatment, and with previous therapies for chronic HCV patients until July 2017. A total of 36 studies were included: 30 studies from the perspective of the healthcare payer, 3 from the societal perspective, and 3 did not report the perspective. For genotype 1, the highest number of ICER comparison corresponds to sofosbuvir (SOF) triple therapy and SOF-based combinations which reported a cost per QALY systematically ranging from negative to lower than US$100,000 when compared with no treatment or dual therapy or Simeprevir triple therapy. Expert commentary: Selected studies may be overestimating the true cost per QALY of second-generation DAAs in the treatment of HCV, mainly because of neglecting non-healthcare costs, using official list prices which are higher than actual transaction prices and not adopting the long run drug price in a dynamic approach. In addition, the impact of important price reductions of several DAAs in recent years on cost per QALY should be considered.

Does €1 Per Prescription Make a Difference? Impact of a Capped Low-Intensity Pharmaceutical Co-Payment

BACKGROUND

Increasing patient contributions and reducing the population exempt from pharmaceutical co-payment and co-insurance rates were one of the most common measures in the reforms adopted in Europe during 2010-2015.

OBJECTIVE

We estimated the association between the introduction of a capped co-payment of €1 per prescription and drug consumption of the publicly insured population of Catalonia (Spain).

METHODS

We used administrative data on monthly pharmaceutical consumption (defined daily doses [DDDs]) from January 2012 to December 2014, for a representative sample of 85,000 people.

RESULTS

Our results showed that consumption increased in the 2 months previous to the introduction of the measure, and fell with the introduction of the 'Euro per prescription' co-payment. The average net response associated with the reform (including anticipation) was a reduction of 4.1 DDDs per person per month, representing a 6.4% reduction. The decrease in pharmaceutical consumption was larger for those individuals who had free medicines prior to the reform compared with those who already paid a co-insurance rate (9.7 vs. 1.4 DDDs per person per month). The largest reduction in DDDs per person occurred in the following groups: dermatologic drugs, antihypertensives, non-insulin antidiabetic drugs, insulin antidiabetic drugs, and laxatives.

CONCLUSION

A uniform capped low co-payment may give rise to a major reduction in drug consumption to a much greater extent among those who previously had free prescriptions.

Non-healthcare costs of hepatitis C: a systematic review

There is an increasing interest in the indirect (or non-healthcare) costs of hepatitis C virus (HCV). Areas covered: Systematic review of original studies on the non-healthcare costs of HCV published in English or Spanish between January 2000 and March 2017. 19 studies addressing non-healthcare cost of HCV were included in the analysis. All studies but one contain treatments with monotherapy or dual therapy prior to the recent introduction of innovative and highly effective direct acting antivirals (DAAs). Five studies estimate the incremental non-healthcare cost of HCV with a control group, which is regarded as high-quality methodology. The incremental annual non-healthcare costs of HCV in untreated patients compared with non-HCV patients are €4,209 in the US, and taking data from 5 European countries costs range from €280 in the UK to €659 in France. Expert commentary: Available studies may be underestimating the true burden of non-healthcare costs for HCV as they are all partial studies, mainly including absenteeism and premature mortality estimates. Moreover, there is a need for studies addressing non-healthcare costs of HCV in settings where new treatments with DAAs have been implemented, as they are probably changing the current and future burden of the disease.

[Socioeconomic Costs of Asthma in the European Union, United States and Canada: A Systematic Review]

BACKGROUND

Asthma is responsible for a large number of doctor and emergency visits due to exacerbations and inadequate control of the disease, which give rise to very high associated economic costs. The social cost of asthma comprises both the healthcare and non-healthcare costs. The purpose of this study was to analyse up-to-date estimates of the social cost of asthma, with special reference to the influence of level of severity and degree of control.

METHODS

A systematic review of original cost-of-illness studies of asthma published in English or Spanish between January 2004 and December 2014 and indexed in PubMed, IBECS or IME was conducted.

RESULTS

29 cost-of-illness studies of asthma were identified, 21 of which used the societal perspective. Only 10 studies estimated the incremental cost of asthma with a control group, and none of them refers to EU countries. Of these 10, only 4 were regarded as high-quality evidence, insofar as they combined a matched control with regression models. The annual incremental cost of asthma in adults ranged from €416 to €5,317. The incremental healthcare cost of asthma increased with level of severity, from €964 for intermittent asthma to €11,703 for severe persistent asthma in adults. In adults, the incremental non-healthcare cost of asthma ranged from €136 to €3,461.

CONCLUSIONS

Selected studies in this review show great heterogeneity due to different population characteristics, study designs and valuation methods, which limits their comparability. However, it can be concluded that incremental healthcare costs of asthma, compared to people without asthma, exceeds seven hundred Euros (valued in 2013) in most of the reviwed estimation for several countries. This figure is greater for studies from the United States. The incremental cost per patient increases very rapidly with level of severity and decreases with asthma patient control.

Effect of cost sharing on adherence to evidence-based medications in patients with acute coronary syndrome

Objectives

Cost-sharing scheme for pharmaceuticals in Spain changed in July 2012. Our aim was to assess the impact of this change on adherence to essential medication in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) in the region of Valencia.

Methods

Population-based retrospective cohort of 10 563 patients discharged alive after an ACS in 2009–2011. We examined a control group (low-income working population) that did not change their coinsurance status, and two intervention groups: pensioners who moved from full coverage to 10% coinsurance and middle-income to high-income working population, for whom coinsurance rose from 40% to 50% or 60%. Weekly adherence rates measured from the date of the first prescription. Days with available medication were estimated by linking prescribed and filled medications during the follow-up period.

Results

Cost-sharing change made no significant differences in adherence between intervention and control groups for essential medications with low price and low patient maximum coinsurance, such as antiplatelet and beta-blockers. For costlier ACE inhibitor or an angiotensin II receptor blocker (ACEI/ARB) and statins, it had an immediate effect in the proportion of adherence in the pensioner group as compared with the control group (6.8% and 8.3% decrease of adherence, respectively, p<0.01 for both). Adherence to statins decreased for the middle-income to high-income group as compared with the control group (7.8% increase of non-adherence, p<0.01). These effects seemed temporary.

Conclusions

Coinsurance changes may lead to decreased adherence to proven, effective therapies, especially for higher priced agents with higher patient cost share. Consideration should be given to fully exempt high-risk patients from drug cost sharing.

Issues Raised by the Impact of Tax Reforms and Regional Devolution on Health-Care Financing in Spain, 1996–2002

The authors aim to describe and discuss the likely effects of three recent policy measures related to the financing of the Spanish National Health System which have been introduced over the period 1996–2002 under the conservative Popular Party government. First, tax incentives for private health insurance were introduced with the 1999 income tax reform. Second, in 2002 the devolution of health-services management to regional governments was completed along with reform of the regional mechanism of allocation of public funds (intergovernmental grants, tax revenues, and fiscal accountability). Third, earmarked indirect taxes were introduced in 2002 as a source of additional revenues devoted to public-health financing.

How efficient are referral hospitals in Uganda? A data envelopment analysis and tobit regression approach

BACKGROUND

Hospitals represent a significant proportion of health expenditures in Uganda, accounting for about 26 % of total health expenditure. Improving the technical efficiency of hospitals in Uganda can result in large savings which can be devoted to expand access to services and improve quality of care. This paper explores the technical efficiency of referral hospitals in Uganda during the 2012/2013 financial year.

METHODS

This was a cross sectional study using secondary data. Input and output data were obtained from the Uganda Ministry of Health annual health sector performance report for the period July 1, 2012 to June 30, 2013 for the 14 public sector regional referral and 4 large private not for profit hospitals. We assumed an output-oriented model with Variable Returns to Scale to estimate the efficiency score for each hospital using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) with STATA13. Using a Tobit model DEA, efficiency scores were regressed against selected institutional and contextual/environmental factors to estimate their impacts on efficiency.

RESULTS

The average variable returns to scale (Pure) technical efficiency score was 91.4 % and the average scale efficiency score was 87.1 % while the average constant returns to scale technical efficiency score was 79.4 %. Technically inefficient hospitals could have become more efficient by increasing the outpatient department visits by 45,943; and inpatient days by 31,425 without changing the total number of inputs. Alternatively, they would achieve efficiency by for example transferring the excess 216 medical staff and 454 beds to other levels of the health system without changing the total number of outputs. Tobit regression indicates that significant factors in explaining hospital efficiency are: hospital size (p < 0.01); bed occupancy rate (p < 0.01) and outpatient visits as a proportion of inpatient days (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Hospitals identified at the high and low extremes of efficiency should be investigated further to determine how and why production processes are operating differently at these hospitals. As policy makers gain insight into mechanisms promoting hospital services utilization in hospitals with high efficiency they can develop context-appropriate strategies for supporting hospitals with low efficiency to improve their service and thereby better address unmet needs for hospital services in Uganda.

An economic analysis of the EHAS telemedicine system in Alto Amazonas

Telemedicine systems providing voice communication and email by radio were installed at seven health centres (HCs) and 32 health posts (HPs) in the Alto Amazonas province of Peru during 2001. A cost analysis was performed to estimate the net effect on direct resource consumption from the perspective of society. Prior to the availability of the EHAS telemedicine system, there was a mean of 11.1 urgent patient referrals per year from the HPs and 14.0 referrals per year from the HCs. After the implementation of telemedicine, patient referrals fell to 2.5 per year from the HPs ( P = 0.03) and to 8.4 per year from the HCs ( P = 0.17). The net economic effect of the telemedicine programme over a four-year period was clearly positive, amounting to annual net savings of US&dollar;320,126 (using a 5% discounting rate). A one-way sensitivity analysis using a range of values for the discounting rate, and the number of urgent referrals, confirms that the programme was efficient (i.e. it made net financial savings) in all cases. From the restricted budgetary perspective of the health network, the results also demonstrate that the additional operational costs (telephone and maintenance) introduced by the telemedicine system were lower than the direct cost-savings produced for the health-care network.

Cost and Budget Impact Analysis of an Accurate Intraoperative Sentinel Lymph Node Diagnosis for Breast Cancer Metastasis

BACKGROUND

Conventional intraoperative sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) in breast cancer (BC) has limitations in establishing a definitive diagnosis of metastasis intraoperatively, leading to an unnecessary second operation. The one-step nucleic amplification assay (OSNA) provides accurate intraoperative diagnosis and avoids further testing. Only five articles have researched the cost and cost effectiveness of this diagnostic tool, although many hospitals have adopted it, and economic evaluation is needed for budget holders.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to measure the budget impact in Japanese BC patients after the introduction of OSNA, and assess the certainty of the results.

METHODS

Budget impact analysis of OSNA on Japanese healthcare expenditure from 2015 to 2020. Local governments, society-managed health insurers, and Japan health insurance associations were the budget holders. In order to assess the cost gap between the gold standard (GS) and OSNA in intraoperative SLNB, a two-scenario comparative model that was structured using the clinical pathway of a BC patient group who received SLNB was applied. Clinical practice guidelines for BC were cited for cost estimation.

RESULTS

The total estimated cost of all BC patients diagnosed by GS was US$1,023,313,850. The budget impact of OSNA in total health expenditure was -US$24,413,153 (-US$346 per patient). Two-way sensitivity analysis between survival rate (SR) of the GS and OSNA was performed by illustrating a cost-saving threshold: y ≅ 1.14x - 0.16 in positive patients, and y ≅ 0.96x + 0.029 in negative patients (x = SR-GS, y = SR-OSNA). Base inputs of the variables in these formulas demonstrated a cost saving.

CONCLUSION

OSNA reduces healthcare costs, as confirmed by sensitivity analysis.

Free Medicines Thanks to Retirement: Impact of Coinsurance Exemption on Pharmaceutical Expenditures and Hospitalization Offsets in a national health service

This paper examines the impact of coinsurance exemption for prescription medicines applied to elderly individuals in Spain after retirement. We use a rich administrative dataset that links pharmaceutical consumption and hospital discharge records for the full population aged 58 to 65 years in January 2004 covered by the public insurer in a Spanish region, and we follow them until December 2006. We use a difference-in-differences strategy and exploit the eligibility age for Social Security to control for the endogeneity of the retirement decision. Our results show that this uniform exemption increases the consumption of prescription medicines on average by 17.5%, total pharmaceutical expenditure by 25% and the costs borne by the insurer by 60.4%, without evidence of any offset effect in the form of lower short term probability of hospitalization. The impact is concentrated among consumers of medicines for acute and other non-chronic diseases whose previous coinsurance rate was 30% to 40%. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[Impact of the Pharmaceutical Copayment Reform on the Use of Antidiabetics, Antithrombotics and for Chronic Obstructive Airway Disease Agents, Spain]

OBJECTIVE

In 2012 it changed the Spanish legislation regulating the pharmaceutical copayment by the National Health System (NHS). The objective was to know if the Spanish pharmaceutical copayment reform in 2012 has affected drugs consumptions for chronic diseases such as antidiabetics, antithrombotics and agents against obstructive conditions of the respiratory tract.

METHODS

Retrospective longitudinal observational study, using general segmented linear regression models for interrupted time series. The variables analyzed were the number of defined daily doses (DDDs) and the amount corresponding to public funding and not public funding from the (NHS) since September 2010 to August 2015 (T=60).

RESULTS

The estimated variation rate of DDDs is negative but decreasing for the three therapeutic subgroups at 6, 12, 24 and 38 months after the intervention: -0.1% for antidiabetics after 6 months and 0.3% after 38 months; -3.7% for antithrombotics after 6 months and -4.6% after 38 months; -2.7% for asthma and COPD drugs after 6 months and -1.3% after 38 months. A sustained and significant reduction in expenditure was estimated only in the subgroup of asthma and COPD drugs: -5.2% after 6 months, -7.0% after 12 months and after 24 months, and -6.2% after 38 months.

CONCLUSIONS

The pharmaceutical copayment reform of 2012 led to an immediate and significant reduction in the number of DDDs of all three therapeutic subgroups selected in this study. This level effect is not permanent, as it is accompanied by a change in the growth trend in the post-intervention months, which has partly offset the effect on the level.

[Austerity policies and changes in healthcare use patterns. SESPAS report 2014]

This article analyzes the main changes in healthcare use patterns in Spain related to the economic recession and to the measures taken to address it. The impact of the reform of drug copayment is examined; the number of prescriptions has decreased, although the effects of this reform on adherence, access to necessary and effective treatments, and health, are still unknown. This article also describes how waiting times and waiting lists for surgery have increased in recent years, as has the population's dissatisfaction with the national health system. Analysis of microdata from the Spanish national health surveys for 2006 and 2011/12 show that the economic recession is deterring the use of uncovered dental visits among the lowest social class. We recommend clearer definition of the role played by copayments within the national health system, and focussing on those who most need healthcare in order to prevent the more socioeconomically advantaged collectives from consuming a larger share of available services after the cuts.

Predictors of primary health care pharmaceutical expenditure by districts in Uganda and implications for budget setting and allocation

Background

There is need for the Uganda Ministry of Health to understand predictors of primary health care pharmaceutical expenditure among districts in order to guide budget setting and to improve efficiency in allocation of the set budget among districts.

Methods

Cross sectional, retrospective observational study using secondary data. The value of pharmaceuticals procured by primary health care facilities in 87 randomly selected districts for the Financial Year 2011/2012 was collected. Various specifications of the dependent variable (pharmaceutical expenditure) were used: total pharmaceutical expenditure, Per capita district pharmaceutical expenditure, pharmaceutical expenditure per district health facility and pharmaceutical expenditure per outpatient department visit. Andersen’s behaviour model of health services utilisation was used as conceptual framework to identify independent variables likely to influence health care utilisation and hence pharmaceutical expenditure. Econometric analysis was conducted to estimate parameters of various regression models.

Results

All models were significant overall (P < 0.01), with explanatory power ranging from 51 to 82 %. The log linear model for total pharmaceutical expenditure explained about 80 % of the observed variation in total pharmaceutical expenditure (Adjusted R² = 0.797) and contained the following variables: Immunisation coverage, Total outpatient department attendance, Urbanisation, Total number of government health facilities and total number of Health Centre IIs. The model based on Per capita Pharmaceutical expenditure explained about 50 % of the observed variation in per capita pharmaceutical expenditure (Adjusted R² = 0.513) and was more balanced with the following variables: Outpatient per capita attendance, percentage of rural population below poverty line 2005, Male Literacy rate, Whether a district is characterised by MOH as difficult to reach or not and the Human poverty index.

Conclusions

The log-linear model based on total pharmaceutical expenditure works acceptably well and can be considered useful for predicting future total pharmaceutical expenditure following observed trends. It can be used as a simple tool for rough estimation of the potential overall national primary health pharmaceutical expenditure to guide budget setting. The model based on pharmaceutical expenditure per capita is a more balanced model containing both need and enabling factor variables. These variables would be useful in allocating any set budget to districts.

Socio-economic costs of osteoarthritis: a systematic review of cost-of-illness studies

OBJECTIVE

The burden of illness that can be attributed to osteoarthritis is considerable and ever increasing. The aim of this systematic review is to analyze currently available data derived from cost-of-illness studies on the healthcare and non-healthcare costs of osteoarthritis.

METHODS

PubMed, Index Medicus Español (IME), and the Spanish Database of Health Sciences [Índice Bibliográfico Español en Ciencias de la Salud (IBECS)] were searched up to the end of April 2013. This study adhered to the PRISMA guidelines. Articles were reviewed and the study quality assessed by two independent investigators with consensus resolution of discrepancies.

RESULTS

We identified 39 studies that investigated the socio-economic cost of osteoarthritis. Only nine studies took a social perspective. Rather than estimating the incremental cost of osteoarthritis, nine studies estimated the total cost of treating patients with osteoarthritis without a control for comorbidity. The other 30 studies determined the incremental cost with or without a control group. Only nine studies assessed a comprehensive list of healthcare resources. The annual incremental healthcare costs of generalized osteoarthritis ranged from €705 to €19,715. The annual incremental non-healthcare-related costs of generalized osteoarthritis ranged from €432 to €11,956.

CONCLUSIONS

The study concludes that the social cost of osteoarthritis could be between 0.25% and 0.50% of a country׳s GDP. This should be considered in order to foster studies that take into account both healthcare and non-healthcare costs.

Paying for formerly free medicines in Spain after 1 year of co-payment: changes in the number of dispensed prescriptions

BACKGROUND

After more than three decades of free medicines for the elderly in Spain, in the context of heavy austerity reforms of public financing, a set of cost-sharing reforms on pharmaceutical prescriptions with regional variants have been established in Spain since July 2012.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this analysis is to present the first attempt to provide accurate estimates of the overall impact at the regional level of these cost-sharing reforms.

METHODS

We estimated the impact of the reforms on the quantity of dispensed medicines during the first 14 months. We estimated 17 autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) time series models of the monthly number of prescriptions dispensed in pharmacies for the period January 2003-May 2012 in each one of the 17 regions (Autonomous Communities) of Spain. We calculated dynamic forecasts for the horizon June 2012-July 2013 in order to estimate the counterfactual (number of prescriptions that would had been observed without the intervention), and we estimated the impact of cost-sharing changes as the difference between the observed number of accumulated prescriptions at 3, 6, 12, and 14 months and the number predicted by our time-series models (in percentages).

RESULTS

During the last decade the number of dispensed prescriptions has experienced rapid and continuous increases. In the first 14 months after the co-payment reform, the total number of prescriptions decreased dramatically, by more than 20% in Catalunya, Valencia, and Galicia, by more than 15% in nine other regions, and by more than 10% in 15 of the 17 Spanish regions. The results of our model suggest that the new co-payment caused an abrupt shift in the mean level of the time series. No shift in trend has been detected; the previous positive trend remains unchanged in most of the Autonomous Communities.

CONCLUSION

After decades of unsuccessfully trying to reduce drug spending in the Spanish National Health System through actions on prices and on prescribers, the co-payment established in mid-2012 led to a dramatic reduction in the use of drugs. The health effects of this reduction are not known.

Launch prices for new pharmaceuticals in the heavily regulated and subsidized Spanish market, 1995-2007

This paper provides empirical evidence on the explanatory factors affecting introductory prices of new pharmaceuticals in a heavily regulated and highly subsidized market. We collect a data set consisting of all new chemical entities launched in Spain between 1997 and 2005, and model launch prices following an extended version of previous economic models. We found that, unlike in the US and Sweden, therapeutically "innovative" products are not overpriced relative to "imitative" ones after having controlled for other factors. Price setting is mainly used as a mechanism to adjust for inflation independently of the degree of innovation. The drugs that enter through the centralized EMA approval procedure are overpriced, which may be a consequence of market globalization and international price setting.

Cost analysis of the treatments for patients with advanced Parkinson's disease: SCOPE study

OBJECTIVE

To perform a comparative long-term analysis of the associated healthcare costs for the therapeutic options in advanced Parkinson's Disease (PD): deep brain stimulation (DBS), continuous duodenal levodopa-carbidopa infusion (CDLCI), and continuous subcutaneous apomorphine infusion (CSAI).

METHODS

Resource use associated with the pre-treatment period, procedure, and follow-up was assessed for the three therapies from the perspective of the Spanish national healthcare system. Resources consumption was measured with a Healthcare Resources Questionnaire (at nine advanced PD centres). Unit costs (Euro-Spain 2010) were applied to measure resource use to obtain the average total cost for each therapy over 5 years.

RESULTS

Mean cumulative 5-year cost per patient was significantly lower with DBS (€88,014) vs CSAI (€141,393) and CDLCI (€233,986) (p < 0.0001). DBS was associated with the lowest cumulative costs from year 2, with a yearly average cost of €17,603 vs €46,797 for CDLCI (p = 0.001) and €28,279 for CSAI (p = 0.008). For every patient treated annually with CDLCI, two could be treated with DBS (or €29,194 could be saved) and for every patient treated with CSAI, €10,676 could be saved with DBS. The initial DBS investment (32.2% of the total 5-year costs) was offset by decreases in anti-Parkinsonian drugs and follow-up costs. CDLCI and CSAI required constant drug use (i.e., levodopa and carbidopa for CDLCI, apomorphine for CSAI), representing ∼95% of their total 5-year cost.

LIMITATIONS

All costs were based on a questionnaire, not on actual clinical data. The study is not a cost-effectiveness analysis as there is a lack of comparable outcomes data. An expert panel was used due to the complexity and variability in the treatment of advanced PD. The sample size was relatively small.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, DBS requires less use of health resources than CDLCI or CSAI in advanced PD patients, mostly pharmacological. The initial DBS investment was offset at year 2 by reductions in the ongoing consumption of anti-Parkinsonian medication. For every patient treated annually with CDLCI or CSAI, substantial cost savings could be made with DBS.

Do higher-priced generic medicines enjoy a competitive advantage under reference pricing?

BACKGROUND

In many countries with generic reference pricing, generic producers and distributors compete by means of undisclosed discounts offered to pharmacies in order to reduce acquisition costs and to induce them to dispense their generic to patients in preference over others.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this article is to test the hypothesis that under prevailing reference pricing systems for generic medicines, those medicines sold at a higher consumer price may enjoy a competitive advantage.

METHOD

Real transaction prices for 179 generic medicines acquired by pharmacies in Spain have been used to calculate the discount rate on acquisition versus reimbursed costs to pharmacies. Two empirical hypotheses are tested: the discount rate at which pharmacies acquire generic medicines is higher for those pharmaceutical presentations for which there are more generic competitors; and, the discount rate at which pharmacies acquire generic medicines is higher for those pharmaceutical forms for which the consumer price has declined less in relation to the consumer price of the brand drug before generic entry (higher-priced generic medicines).

RESULTS

An average discount rate of 39.3% on acquisition versus reimbursed costs to pharmacies has been observed. The magnitude of the discount positively depends on the number of competitors in the market. The higher the ratio of the consumer price of the generic to that of the brand drug prior to generic entry (i.e. the smaller the price reduction of the generic in relation to the brand drug), the larger the discount rate.

CONCLUSIONS

Under reference pricing there is intense price competition among generic firms in the form of unusually high discounts to pharmacies on official ex-factory prices reimbursed to pharmacies. However, this effect is highly distorting because it favours those medicines with a higher relative price in relation to the brand price before generic entry.

Income transfer policies and the impacts on the immunization of children: the Bolsa Família Program

This paper investigates the impact of the Bolsa Família Program on the immunization of children from 0 to 6 years of age in Brazil and its regions. The Bolsa Família program is a conditional cash transfer program. One of its conditionalities is the compliance of children with the immunization schedule ordered by the Ministry of Health. The evaluation was performed using the Propensity Score Matching technique. We used data from a survey conducted in 2005 evaluating the program - Pesquisa de Avaliação de Impacto do Programa Bolsa Família. The main findings suggest that the Bolsa Família Program does not affect the immunization status of children.

The impact of repeated cost containment policies on pharmaceutical expenditure: experience in Spain

The growth in expenditure on the financing of pharmaceuticals is a factor that accounts for a large part of the increase in public health spending in most developed countries. In an attempt to kerb this growth, many health authorities, particularly in Europe, have introduced numerous regulatory measures that have affected the market, especially on the supply side. These measures include the system of reference pricing, the reduction of wholesale distributors' and retailers' markups and compulsory reductions of ex-factory prices. We assess the impact of these cost containment measures on expenditure per capita, prescriptions per capita and the average price of pharmaceuticals financed by the public sector in Catalonia (Spain), from 1995 to 2006. We apply an autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) time series model using dummy variables to represent the various cost containment measures implemented. Twelve of the 16 interventions analysed that were intended to contain the overall pharmaceutical expenditure were not effective in reducing it even in the short term, and the four that were effective were not so in the long term, thus amounting to a moderate annual saving.

Spanish recommendations on economic evaluation of health technologies

The economic evaluation of health technologies has become a major tool in health policy in Europe for prioritizing the allocation of health resources and the approval of new technologies. The objective of this proposal was to develop guidelines for the economic evaluation of health technologies in Spain. A group of researchers specialized in economic evaluation of health technologies developed the document reported here, following the initiative of other countries in this framework, to provide recommendations for the standardization of methodology applicable to economic evaluation of health technologies in Spain. Recommendations appear under 17 headings or sections. In each case, the recommended requirements to be satisfied by economic evaluation of health technologies are provided. Each recommendation is followed by a commentary providing justification and compares and contrasts the proposals with other available alternatives. The economic evaluation of health technologies should have a role in assessing health technologies, providing useful information for decision making regarding their adoption, and they should be transparent and based on scientific evidence.

Impact of European pharmaceutical price regulation on generic price competition: a review

Although economic theory indicates that it should not be necessary to intervene in the generic drug market through price regulation, most EU countries intervene in this market, both by regulating the maximum sale price of generics (price cap) and by setting the maximum reimbursement rate, especially by means of reference pricing systems. We analyse current knowledge of the impact of direct price-cap regulation of generic drugs and the implementation of systems regulating the reimbursement rate, particularly through reference pricing and similar tools, on dynamic price competition between generic competitors in Europe. A literature search was carried out in the EconLit and PubMed databases, and on Google Scholar. The search included papers published in English or Spanish between January 2000 and July 2009. Inclusion criteria included that studies had to present empirical results of a quantitative nature for EU countries of the impact of price capping and/or regulation of the reimbursement rate (reference pricing or similar systems) on price dynamics, corresponding to pharmacy sales, in the generic drug market. The available evidence indicates that price-cap regulation leads to a levelling off of generic prices at a higher level than would occur in the absence of this regulation. Reference pricing systems cause an obvious and almost compulsory reduction in the consumer price of all pharmaceuticals subject to this system, to a varying degree in different countries and periods, the reduction being greater for originator-branded drugs than for generics. In several countries with a reference pricing system, it was observed that generics with a consumer price lower than the reference price do not undergo price reductions until the reference price is reduced, even when there are other lower-priced generics on the market (absence of price competition below the reference price). Beyond the price reduction forced by the price-cap and/or reference pricing regulation itself, the entry of new generic competitors is useful for lowering the real transaction price of purchases made by pharmacies (dynamic price competition at ex-factory level), although this effect is weaker or non-significant for official ex-factory prices and consumer prices in some countries. When maximum reimbursement systems such as reference pricing or similar types are applied, pharmacies are seen to receive large discounts on the price they pay for the pharmaceuticals, although these discounts are not transferred to the consumer price. The percentage discount offered to pharmacies in a country that uses a price-cap system combined with reference pricing is positively and significantly related to the number of generic competitors in the market for the pharmaceutical (dynamic price competition at ex-factory level).

[A proposed guideline for economic evaluation of health technologies]

Over the last few years, economic evaluation of health technologies has become a major tool used by European health policy decision-makers to create strategies for prioritizing the allocation of health resources and the approval of new technologies. Spain was a pioneer in proposing the standardization of methodology applicable to economic evaluation studies. However, because health policy decision-makers refused to support the initiative, the methodology was never put into practice. In the medium term, evidence of the economic value of new health technologies financed by the national health system will probably be increasingly required. At that time, stakeholders and decision-makers will have to agree upon a clear and concise set of rules on the technical and methodological issues that must be followed by economic evaluations of health technologies. Consequently, we have provided guidelines and recommendations for producing first-rate economic evaluations. The recommendations appear under seventeen headings or sections. In each case, the recommended requirements to be satisfied by an economic evaluation of health technologies are provided and each recommendation is followed by a commentary, providing a justification and comparing and contrasting the proposal with other available alternatives.

[Review of the economic evidence on the use of deep brain stimulation in late stage Parkinson's disease]

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this article is to present the results of a systematic review on the costs and the efficiency of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) on patients suffering advanced Parkinson's disease.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

A systematic review is performed using databases such as Medline, NHS EED and HTA del Centre for Reviews and Dissemination and Google Scholar from January 2001-2008.

RESULTS

Ten articles meet the criteria; one cost description, four cost analyses and five economic evaluations. The scientific evidence shows a reduction in the pharmaceutical costs of those patients treated with DBS. Regarding the direct medical costs, the same statement cannot be made. While some studies estimate the equivalent annual cost of DBS is 54,7% higher than that of traditional therapy, other studies, which include indirect costs such as productivity losses or informal care, claim DBS costs 34,7% less. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio per QALY is slightly above euro30.000 in 1998 in both the cost-utility analyses where the time horizon was 5 years or more. In the third cost-utility analysis, DBS is the dominant option when the equivalent annual cost was computed.

CONCLUSIONS

The available evidence is not strong enough to conclude whether DBS' direct medical costs are higher or lower than the costs of traditional therapy. Key words: Parkinson's disease. Deep brain stimulation. Subthalamic stimulation. Cost analysis. Economic evaluation.

Influence of bacterial resistances on the efficiency of antibiotic treatments for community-acquired pneumonia

The objective of this paper is to perform a cost-effectiveness analysis of the oral antibiotics used in Spain for the ambulatory treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Our analysis takes into account the influence of bacterial resistances on the cost-effectiveness ratio of antibiotic alternatives from the viewpoint of the public insurer. A deterministic decision analysis model is used to simulate the impact of treatment alternatives on both patients' health and resource consumption. Amoxicillin 1 g may be the most efficient therapy for treating typical pneumonia, as long as the physician is able to discriminate clinically the aetiology of the process with a high degree of reliability. However, for those pathological pictures in which the aetiology cannot be discriminated clinically, and for those in which the consequences of incorrect diagnosis are serious according to clinical criteria, moxifloxacin is the most effective and efficient option.

Why are Some Spanish Regions So Much More Efficient Than others?

We investigate the main sources of heterogeneity in regional efficiency. We estimate a translog stochastic-frontier production function in the analysis of Spanish regions in the period 1964–96, to attempt to measure and explain changes in technical efficiency. Our results confirm that regional inefficiency is significantly and positively correlated with the ratio of public capital to private capital. The proportion of service industries in private capital, the proportion of public capital devoted to transport infrastructures, the industrial specialization, and spatial spillovers from transport infrastructures in neighbouring regions significantly contributed to improving regional efficiency.

The impact of home hospitalization on healthcare costs of exacerbations in COPD patients

Home-hospitalization (HH) improves clinical outcomes in selected patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) admitted at the emergency room due to an exacerbation, but its effects on healthcare costs are poorly known. The current analysis examines the impact of HH on direct healthcare costs, compared to conventional hospitalizations (CH). A randomized controlled trial was performed in two tertiary hospitals in Barcelona (Spain). A total of 180 exacerbated COPD patients (HH 103 and CH 77) admitted at the emergency room were studied. In the HH group, a specialized respiratory nurse delivered integrated care at home. The average direct cost per patient was significantly lower for HH than for CH, with a difference of euro 810 (95% CI, euro 418-1,169) in the mean cost per patient. The magnitude of monetary savings attributed to HH increased with the severity of the patients considered eligible for the intervention.