Bridging the evidence-to-action gap: enhancing alignment of national nutrition strategies in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam with global and regional recommendations

Nutrition policies are critical frameworks for tackling the triple burden of malnutrition, including undernutrition (i.e., stunting and wasting), overweight, and hidden hunger (i.e., micronutrient deficiencies). We examined (1) the alignment of recent National Nutrition Strategies and Action Plans (NNS) in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam with recent global and regional recommendations and standards with a focus on maternal, infant, and young child nutrition and (2) changes compared to the previous NNS. We extracted information regarding the context, objectives, interventions, indicators, strategies, and coordination mechanisms from the most recent NNSs in Cambodia (2019-2023), Laos (2021-2025), and Vietnam (2021-2030). Recent NNSs aimed to reduce malnutrition among priority populations and described program development, monitoring, and evaluation plans for the following interventions: breastfeeding promotion, improved complementary feeding, dietary diversity, safe water, food security, nutritional/health campaigns, strategies for vulnerable groups, and strengthening of policies related to food and nutrition. Direct interventions to improve women's general nutrition (outside of pregnancy) and adolescent nutrition were not the focus of any NNSs. Although some indicators (e.g., wasting and exclusive breastfeeding) were covered in all recent NNSs, other indicators (e.g., low birth weight and childhood overweight and obesity) were inconsistently incorporated. In comparison to the previous NNS, the following interventions were discontinued in three countries: dietary counseling, maintaining physical activity, monitoring weight gain during pregnancy, maternal micronutrient supplementation, and nutrition and HIV. Despite similarities in structure and content, the recent NNSs of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam do not consistently align with global and regional recommendations. Variations in the types of interventions and indicators included may reflect a shift in priorities, attention, or resources. In conclusion, the NNSs of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam exhibit both structural and content similarities; however, certain interventions and indicators vary across countries and differ from global and regional recommendations. Enhancing alignment while prioritizing country-specific needs, optimizing coordination, ensuring policy efficacy, and updating nutrition strategy data for cross-country comparisons and knowledge exchange is critical to ensure progress on reducing malnutrition in the region.

First foods in a packaged world: Results from the COMMIT consortium to protect young child diets in Southeast Asia

Although commercially produced complementary foods (CPCFs) are increasingly sold throughout Southeast Asia, concerns have been raised about CPCFs nutritional quality, labelling practices and the strength and scope of national CPCF regulations. The Consortium for Improving Complementary Foods in Southeast Asia (COMMIT), composed of UN agencies and civil society organizations, was formed to assess the nutrient gap in the diets of young children and the consumer, product and policy landscapes for CPCFs in seven Southeast Asian countries. Results from a nutrient gap assessment indicate that the diets of children aged 6-23 months are suboptimal and deficient in micronutrients. A consumer survey revealed that caretakers commonly use CPCFs, are conscious of the importance of nutrition and are influenced by label claims. Results from a CPCF benchmarking showed that many products sold in Southeast Asia contained added sugar or sweeteners, had a high total sugar and/or high sodium content and that no CPCF product adhered to all recommended labelling practices. Further, a legal review of national binding legal measures relevant to CPCFs showed minimal alignment with available global guidance. Urgent actions are necessary to strengthen national regulations related to CPCF nutrient composition and labelling practices. To speed progress, COMMIT developed a compendium of existing standards and global guidance to help countries align their national regulations with CPCF composition, labelling and production recommendations. Advocacy to garner public support for new or improved CPCF regulations, as well as strong government monitoring and enforcement of regulations, is crucial to support efforts to safeguard and improve the diets of older infants and young children in Southeast Asia.

Overpromoted and underregulated: National binding legal measures related to commercially produced complementary foods in seven Southeast Asian countries are not fully aligned with available guidance

The market for commercially produced complementary foods (CPCF) is rapidly expanding in Southeast Asia; however, the existence and content of mandatory national policies, standards and legislation (binding legal measures) for CPCF in the region is unclear. To assess the status of national binding legal measures for CPCF in Southeast Asia, a legal and policy desk review was conducted in seven countries (Cambodia, Laos People's Democratic Republic, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam). The alignment of the national binding legal measures relevant to CPCF was assessed against guidance on CPCF nutrient composition and labelling requirements provided by Codex Alimentarius and the World Health Organization (WHO). Each of the seven countries had at least two national binding legal measures related to the nutrient composition or labelling of CPCF; however, there was limited alignment with the guidance from Codex and WHO. No country was fully aligned with the three CPCF-specific Codex standards/guidelines and only one country was in full alignment with the recommendations related to the protection of breastfeeding from the 'WHO Guidance on ending the inappropriate promotion of foods for infants and young children'. The findings of the review indicate that the existing national binding legal measures are insufficient to ensure that the CPCF sold as suitable for older infants and young children are nutritionally adequate and labelled in a responsible manner that does not mislead caregivers. Improved and enforced national binding legal measures for CPCF, in alignment with global guidance, are required to ensure that countries protect, promote and support optimal nutrition for children 6-36 months of age.

Maternity protection policies and the enabling environment for breastfeeding in the Philippines: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

The Philippines has enacted maternity protection policies, such as the 105-Day Expanded Maternity Leave Law and the Expanded Breastfeeding Promotion Act of 2009, to protect, promote, and support breastfeeding. This study aimed to review the content and implementation of maternity protection policies in the Philippines and assess their role in enabling recommended breastfeeding practices. It also identified bottlenecks to successful implementation from the perspectives of mothers and their partners, employers, and authorities from the government and non-government organizations involved in developing, implementing, monitoring, and enforcing maternity protection policies.

METHODS

This study employed a desk review of policies, guidelines, and related documents on maternity protection, and in-depth interviews. Of the 87 in-depth interviews, there were 12 employed pregnant women, 29 mothers of infants, 15 partners of the mothers, 12 employers and 19 key informants from the government and non-government organizations. Respondents for the in-depth interviews were from the Greater Manila Area and were recruited using purposive snowball sampling. Data were collected from December 2020 to April 2021.

RESULTS

The study shows that maternity protection policies in the Philippines are mostly aligned with the maternity protection standards set by the International Labour Organization. However, their role in improving breastfeeding practices is limited because: (1) not all working women have access to maternity protection entitlements; (2) the duration of maternity leave entitlements is inconsistent with the World Health Organization's recommended duration of exclusive breastfeeding; (3) there are gaps in policy implementation including: a lack of monitoring systems to measure the availability, functionality, and usage of lactation spaces; limited workplace support for breastfeeding; poor communication of maternity and paternity entitlements; and limited breastfeeding advocacy and promotion; and (4) there is limited integration between maternity protection and breastfeeding promotion interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a need to (1) strengthen communication about and promotion of maternity and paternity entitlements for mothers, fathers and employers, (2) improve monitoring and enforcement mechanisms to ensure utilization of entitlements among mothers, (3) develop modalities to extend the coverage of maternity entitlements to the informal sector, (4) fully cover paid leave entitlements from social insurance or public funding sources in line with International Labour Organization recommendations, and (5) revisit the limitations on the coverage of paternity entitlement.

Promoting Respectful Maternity Care by Reducing Unnecessary Episiotomies: Experiences from Centers of Excellence for Breastfeeding in Vietnam

(1) Background: Routine episiotomy is not recommended by international guidelines; however, it occurs at a high rate in Vietnam. (2) Methods: A process to reduce unnecessary episiotomies was developed and implemented as part of the Centers of Excellence for Breastfeeding initiative, which aims to deliver high-quality breastfeeding and early essential newborn care services within a supportive policy environment. The aim of this project report is to outline the steps undertaken to reduce episiotomies, the experience in pilot hospitals, and the process towards changing policy. (3) Results: During the 14 months following the change in episiotomy policy, pilot hospital records showed no infant death or injury. Monthly monitoring data from four pilot hospitals showed that the prevalence of episiotomy was substantially lower than the average in national hospitals in Vietnam. Facilitators to reducing the episiotomy rate include the incentive of Centers of Excellence for Breastfeeding designation and supportive hospital leadership. Challenges include the ambiguity of Vietnam's national guideline on episiotomy and lack of routine monitoring on the episiotomy rate and indications. (4) Discussion: Our experience suggests that through training and routine monitoring hospitals can apply a policy of selective episiotomy and reduce the practice, particularly among multiparous women, and improve breastfeeding rates.(5) Conclusions: Sharing our experience of implementing this process and offering four areas for action will hopefully contribute to expanded use of mother-friendly, evidence-based care as policy and routine practice in Vietnam and similar settings.

Cross-sectional multimedia audit reveals a multinational commercial milk formula industry circumventing the Philippine Milk Code with misinformation, manipulation, and cross-promotion campaigns

The Philippine Milk Code was enacted in 1986 to protect breastfeeding and reduce inappropriate marketing of breastmilk substitutes (BMS). The Philippine Milk Code is categorized as "substantially aligned" with the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes ("the Code"), but its provisions are assessed as relatively weak in prohibiting promotion to the general public. The extent to which violations of the Philippine Milk Code persist in traditional media platforms and in the digital space has not been systematically explored. This study employed a cross-sectional multimedia audit to examine the marketing and promotion of products under the scope of the Code, as well as those regulated by the Philippine Milk Code. Through a media monitoring conducted from March to September 2018, a total of 430 unique television (n = 32), printed (n = 87) and online (n = 311) promotional materials were identified. A coding tool was used to analyze the content, including the marketing elements used in the materials. Our findings show that commercial milk formula (CMF) for children ≥36 months old was the most promoted type of product (n = 251); and staging of events (n = 211), provision of special discounts or financial inducements (n = 115) and the use of taglines (n = 112) were the most used marketing elements. Promotion of CMF for children <36 months old was uncommon, which supports the conclusion that there is broad compliance with the Philippine Milk Code in terms of the types of products promoted. However, analysis of marketing elements reveals that the CMF industry circumvents the Philippine Milk Code through the use of false and misleading health and nutrition claims, emotionally manipulative language in promotional materials, and cross-promotion. The findings indicate gaps in enforcement and regulatory measures that require urgent attention.

First do no harm overlooked: Analysis of COVID-19 clinical guidance for maternal and newborn care from 101 countries shows breastfeeding widely undermined

Background

In March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) published clinical guidance for the care of newborns of mothers with COVID-19. Weighing the available evidence on SARS-CoV-2 infection against the well-established harms of maternal-infant separation, the WHO recommended maternal-infant proximity and breastfeeding even in the presence of maternal infection. Since then, the WHO's approach has been validated by further research. However, early in the pandemic there was poor global alignment with the WHO recommendations.

Methods

We assessed guidance documents collected in November and December 2020 from 101 countries and two regional agencies on the care of newborns of mothers with COVID-19 for alignment with the WHO recommendations. Recommendations considered were: (1) skin-to-skin contact; (2) early initiation of breastfeeding; (3) rooming-in; (4) direct breastfeeding; (5) provision of expressed breastmilk; (6) provision of donor human milk; (7) wet nursing; (8) provision of breastmilk substitutes; (9) relactation; (10) psychological support for separated mothers; and (11) psychological support for separated infants.

Results

In less than one-quarter of country guidance were the three key breastfeeding facilitation practices of skin-to-skin contact, rooming-in, and direct breastfeeding recommended. Donor human milk was recommended in under one-quarter of guidance. Psychological support for mothers separated from their infants was recommended in 38%. Few countries recommended relactation, wet nursing, or psychological support for infants separated from mothers. In three-quarters of country guidance, expressed breastmilk for infants unable to directly breastfeed was recommended. The WHO and the United Kingdom's Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists were each cited by half of country guidance documents with the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention directly or indirectly cited by 40%.

Conclusion

Despite the WHO recommendations, many COVID-19 maternal and newborn care guidelines failed to recommend skin-to-skin contact, rooming-in, and breastfeeding as the standard of care. Irregular guidance updates and the discordant, but influential, guidance from the United States Centers for Disease Control may have been contributory. It appeared that once recommendations were made for separation or against breastfeeding they were difficult to reverse. In the absence of quality evidence on necessity, recommendations against breastfeeding should not be made in disease epidemics.

Corrigendum: First do no harm overlooked: Analysis of COVID-19 clinical guidance for maternal and newborn care from 101 countries shows breastfeeding widely undermined

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1049610.].

Birth and newborn care policies and practices limit breastfeeding at maternity facilities in Vietnam

The prevalence of early and exclusive breastfeeding in Vietnam remains sub-optimal. The objective of this study was to determine factors associated with early initiation of breastfeeding (EIBF) and exclusive breastfeeding for the first 3 days after birth (EBF3D). We conducted a population-based, cross-sectional survey of 726 mothers with children aged 0-11 months in two provinces and one municipality from May to July 2020. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine factors associated with EIBF and EBF3D. The prevalence of EIBF was 39.7% and EBF3D 18.0%. The EIBF prevalence is positively associated with immediate and uninterrupted skin-to-skin contact (SSC) for 10-29 min (aOR: 2.55; 95% CI: 1.49, 4.37), 30-59 min (aOR: 4.15; 95% CI: 2.08, 8.27), 60-80 min (aOR: 4.35; 95% CI: 1.50, 12.6), or ≥90 min (aOR: 5.87; 95% CI: 3.14, 10.98). EIBF was negatively associated with cesarean birth (aOR: 0.24; 95% CI: 0.11, 0.51), bringing infant formula to the birth facility (aOR: 0.49; 95% CI: 0.30, 0.78), purchased it after arrival (aOR: 0.37; 95% CI: 0.24, 0.60), or did both (aOR: 0.43; 95% CI: 0.21, 0.89). EBF3D was negatively associated with cesarean section birth (aOR: 0.15; 95% CI: 0.06, 0.39), vaginal birth with episiotomy (aOR: 0.40; 95% CI: 0.18, 0.88), bringing formula to the maternity facility (aOR: 0.03; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.07), purchased it after arrival (aOR: 0.02; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.06) or did both (aOR: 0.04; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.10). Receiving counseling from any source was not significantly associated with early breastfeeding practices. Policy and health service delivery interventions should be directed at eliminating infant formula from birthing environments, reducing unnecessary cesarean sections and episiotomies, providing immediate and uninterrupted SSC for all births, and improving breastfeeding counseling and support.

Implementation and Effectiveness of Policies Adopted to Enable Breastfeeding in the Philippines Are Limited by Structural and Individual Barriers

The Philippines has adopted policies to protect, promote, and support breastfeeding on par with global standards, yet the impact of these policies is not well understood. This study assesses the adequacy and potential impact of breastfeeding policies, as well as the perceptions of stakeholders of their effectiveness and how to address implementation barriers. This mixed methods study entailed a desk review of policies and documents and in-depth interviews with 100 caregivers, employees, employers, health workers, and policymakers in the Greater Manila Area. Although the Philippines has a comprehensive breastfeeding policy framework, its effectiveness was limited by structural and individual barriers. Structural barriers included inconsistent breastfeeding promotion, limited access of mothers to skilled counseling, limited workplace breastfeeding support, gaps in legal provisions, weak monitoring and enforcement of the Philippine Milk Code, and the short duration and limited coverage of maternity leave. Individual barriers included knowledge and skills gaps, misconceptions, and low self-confidence among mothers due to insufficient support to address breastfeeding problems, misconceptions in the community that undermine breastfeeding, limited knowledge and skills of health workers, and insufficient support extended to mothers by household members. Breastfeeding policies in the Philippines are consistent with global standards, but actions to address structural and individual barriers are needed to enhance their effectiveness for improving breastfeeding practices.

Implementation and Effectiveness of Breastfeeding Policies in the Philippines Are Limited by Structural and Individual Barriers

Objectives

To determine the content, implementation, and effectiveness of policies aimed at improving breastfeeding practices in the Philippines.

Methods

This study used mixed methods, including a desk review of relevant policies and documents and in-depth interviews with 100 caregivers, workers, employers, health workers, and policymakers.

Results

Although the Philippines has a strong regulatory framework to protect breastfeeding, the implementation and effectiveness of breastfeeding policies are limited by structural and individual barriers. Structural barriers include: a lack of consistent breastfeeding promotion, limited access to skilled counselling support from health system to community level, and limited breastfeeding support in workplaces for working mothers. Inappropriate marketing of commercial milk formula, including cross-promotion and engagement of industry representatives with health professionals, persists due to gaps in legal provisions and weak monitoring and enforcement of the Philippine Milk Code. Individual barriers include failure to address early breastfeeding problems, misconceptions that undermine breastfeeding, limited knowledge and skills of health workers and caregivers, and lack of support from family members.

Conclusions

Breastfeeding promotion, protection, and support policies in the Philippines are consistent with global standards, but their effectiveness for improving breastfeeding practices can be improved by addressing persistent barriers at the structural and individual levels.

Funding Sources

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (Grant Number OPP50838) and Irish Aid.

Factors Associated With Breastfeeding Practices Around Childbirth: A Cross-Sectional Population-Based Study in Vietnam

Objectives

To determine factors associated with breastfeeding practices around childbirth, namely early initiation of breastfeeding (EIBF) and exclusive breastfeeding for the first three days after birth (EBF3D).

Methods

A population-based, cross-sectional survey of 726 mothers with children aged 0–11 months in two provinces and one municipality was conducted between May and July 2020. Multinomial logistic regression controlling for potential confounding factors was used to examine factors associated with EIBF and EBF3D.

Results

Rates of EIBF (49.7%) and EBF3D (18%) were low. Many mothers (88.0%) brought formula to the birth hospital or purchased it after arrival. Mothers reported high rates of cesarean section (44.6%) and vaginal birth with episiotomy (46.1%), with 49.3% receiving immediate skin-to-skin contact (SSC) after birth. Factors associated with reduced likelihood of EIBF were giving birth by cesarean (OR: 0.24; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.50), bringing formula to the birth facility (OR: 0.48; 95% CI: 0.30, 0.76), or purchasing it after arrival (OR: 0.36; 95% CI: 0.23, 0.58). EIBF was significantly more likely to occur if immediate and uninterrupted SSC was applied for 10–29 minutes (OR: 2.49; 95% CI:1.45, 4.28), 30–59 minutes (OR: 4.15; 95% CI:2.07, 8.33), 60–80 minutes (OR: 4.23; 95% CI:1.60, 11.19), or ≥ 90 minutes (OR: 5.66; 95% CI:3.09, 10.35). EBF3D was less likely among mothers who gave birth by cesarean section (OR:0.15; 95% CI: 0.06, 0.38), had a vaginal birth with episiotomy (OR: 0.40; 95% CI: 0.18, 0.87), brought infant formula to the maternity facility (OR: 0.03; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.07) or purchased it after arrival (OR: 0.02; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.06), and received a free commercial milk formula sample during their hospital stay (OR: 0.12; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.62).

Conclusions

The prevalence of early initiation and exclusive breastfeeding in the first days after birth are low and associated with factors at the individual, health provider, and health facility environment level. Policy actions should be directed at eliminating commercial milk formula from birthing environments, reducing unnecessary cesarean sections and episiotomies, ensuring immediate and uninterrupted SSC for all births, and improving the quality of breastfeeding counseling and support.

Funding Sources

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (Grant Number OPP50838) and Irish Aid.

Paid Maternity Leave in Vietnam: Awareness, Perceptions, Gaps, and Uptake Among Formally Employed Pregnant Women and Mothers of Infants

Objectives

To examine the uptake of Vietnam's paid maternity leave policy in terms of entitlements and awareness, perceptions, and gaps in implementation through the lens of formally employed female workers.

Methods

In this mixed methods study, we interviewed 494 formally employed female workers, among whom 107 were pregnant and 387 were mothers of infants and conducted in-depth interviews with a subset of these women (n = 39).

Results

Of the 494 women interviewed, 268 (54.3%) were working in blue-collar jobs and more than 90% were contributing to the public social insurance fund. Among the 387 mothers on paid maternity leave, 51 (13.2%) did not receive cash entitlements during their leave. Among the 182 mothers with infants aged 6–11 months, 30 (16.5%) returned to work before accruing 180 days of maternity leave. Of 121 women who had returned to work, 26 (21.5%) did not receive a one-hour paid break every day to express breastmilk, relax or breastfeed, and 46 (38.0%) worked the same or more hours per day than before maternity leave. Although most women perceived maternity leave as beneficial for the child's health (92.5%), mother's health (91.5%), family (86.2%), and society (90.7%), fewer women perceived it as beneficial for their income (59.5%), career (46.4%), and employers (30.4%). Not all formally employed women were aware of their maternity protection rights: women were more likely to mention the six-month paid maternity leave (78.7%) and one-hour nursing break (62.3%) than the other nine entitlements (2.0–35.0%). In-depth interviews with pregnant women and mothers of infants supported findings from the quantitative survey.

Conclusions

Although Vietnam's maternity protection policy helps protect the rights of women and children, our study identified implementation gaps that limit its effectiveness. In order to ensure that all women and their families can fully benefit from maternity protection, there is a need to increase awareness of the full set of maternity entitlements, strengthen enforcement of existing policies, and expand entitlements to the informal sector.

Funding Sources

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (Grant Number OPP50838) and Irish Aid.

Global evidence of persistent violations of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes: A systematic scoping review

The influence of marketing on infant and young child feeding and health is well recognized, and an International Code was adopted by the World Health Assembly (WHA) in 1981 to reduce inappropriate marketing and protect breastfeeding. Yet the marketing and influencing continue. This scoping review systematically examined the published research evidence on the nature and extent of exposure to International Code violations from 1981 to August 2021. We used several search strategies involving multi‐language databases, organization websites, citation tracking, and expert consultation, to find research items meeting our inclusion criteria. We evaluated 657 items and retained 153 studies from at least 95 countries in the review. The majority of the studies (n = 113) documenting exposure to inappropriate marketing were published since 2010. Studies reported a broad range of marketing violations targeting mothers and families, health workers, and the general public. Marketing via digital platforms and brand extension has become more frequent. The evidence shows the use of misleading and inaccurate labeling and health and nutrition claims in breach of the Code. Our review confirms that violations of the Code have not ceased and calls for renewed attention from the WHA and national governments to protect the health of children and their mothers.

Exposure to inappropriate marketing continues across the world in health systems, public spaces, points of sale, media, emergency programs, and direct to mothers.

Studies have documented the emergence of products and marketing practices designed to circumvent the Code.

Labeling and health and nutrition claims were found that were misleading, inaccurate, and in breach of the Code.

Evidence of marketing through social media and other digital platforms has increased over time.

Future research, guidance, and policies would benefit from an accessible central repository of comprehensive and comparable measurement tools and evidence.

Beliefs and Norms Associated with the Use of Ultra-Processed Commercial Milk Formulas for Pregnant Women in Vietnam

Commercial milk formula for pregnant women (CMF-PW) is an expensive, ultra-processed food with a high concentration of sugar, the consumption of which may be linked to negative health outcomes. However, CMF-PWs are promoted as beneficial for pregnant women and lactating mothers as well as their children. To date, little is known about the factors associated with the use of CMF-PW among pregnant women. We performed this analysis to examine the association between the use of CMF-PW and related beliefs and norms among pregnant women in Vietnam. We interviewed 268 pregnant women in their second and third trimesters from two provinces and one municipality representing diverse communities in Vietnam. Multinomial (polytomous) logistic regression, structural equation modeling (SEM), and propensity score matching (PSM) analysis were used to examine associations between beliefs and social norms related to CMF-PW and reported consumption, characterized as occasional, recent, and never during the current pregnancy. Overall, 64.6% of pregnant women reported using CMF-PW during the current pregnancy and 34.7% consumed CMF-PW on the day prior to the interview. Strong beliefs that CMF-PW will make a child smart and healthy (53.7%) and the perception that use of CMF-PW is common (70.9%) were associated with increased use on the previous day (beliefs: aOR: 3.56; 95% Confidence Interval (95% CI): 1.65, 7.71; p < 0.01 and social norms aOR: 2.29; 95% CI: 1.13, 4.66; p < 0.05). SEM and PSM analyses confirmed these findings for both occasional and regular CMF-PW use. Results are consistent with observations of CMF-PW product labels and marketing tactics in Vietnam. The prevalent use of CMF-PW in Vietnam is associated with the belief that these products make children smart and healthy and the perceived social norm that most mothers use these products, which mirrors marketing messages and approaches employed by the CMF industry.

Misalignment of global COVID-19 breastfeeding and newborn care guidelines with World Health Organization recommendations

INTRODUCTION

Recommendations for the clinical management of new mothers with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 and their infants are required. Guidance must weigh the risk posed by transmission of SARS-CoV-2 against the protection that maternal proximity and breastfeeding provide infants. Our aim was to review international COVID-19 guidance for maternal and newborn care, assessing alignment with WHO recommendations and the extent to which policy supported or undermined breastfeeding.

METHODS

Guidance documents from 33 countries on the care of infants whose mothers were suspected or confirmed as having COVID-19 were assessed for alignment with WHO recommendations regarding: (1) skin-to-skin contact; (2) early initiation of breastfeeding; (3); rooming-in; (4) direct breastfeeding; (5) provision of expressed breastmilk; (6) provision of donor human milk; (7) wet nursing; (8) provision of breastmilk substitutes; (9) psychological support for separated mothers; and (10) psychological support for separated infants.

RESULTS

Considerable inconsistency in recommendations were found. Recommendations against practices supportive of breastfeeding were common, even in countries with high infant mortality rates. None of the guidance documents reviewed recommended all aspects of WHO guidance. The presence of influential guidance conflicting with WHO recommendations and an undervaluing of the importance of maternal proximity and breastfeeding to infant health appeared to contribute to this poor alignment.

CONCLUSION

Those developing guidance in the COVID-19 pandemic and other infectious disease outbreaks need to appropriately consider the importance of skin-to-skin contact, early initiation of breastfeeding, rooming-in and breastfeeding to maternal and infant physical and psychological health. In weighing the value of recommendations of others in future guidance development, countries should consider past reliability and value placed on breastfeeding. Recommendations against maternal proximity and breastfeeding should not be made without compelling evidence that they are necessary, and less harmful than maintaining dyad integrity.

Childhood stunting and wasting in Myanmar: Key drivers and implications for policies and programmes

Child undernutrition is a public health and development problem in Myanmar that is jeopardizing children's physical and cognitive development and the country's social and economic progress. We identified key drivers of child stunting (low height-for-age) and wasting (low weight-for-height) in a nationally representative sample (n = 3,981) of children 0-59 months of age. The national prevalence of child stunting and wasting was 28% and 7%, respectively. Boys were more likely to be stunted or wasted than girls. Older children 24-35 months were at the highest risk of stunting compared with children under 6 months (risk ratios [RR] 10.34; 95% CI [6.42, 16.65]) whereas the youngest, under 6 months, were at the highest risk of wasting compared with children 36-59 months (RR 2.04; 95% CI [1.16, 3.57]). Maternal height <145 cm (RR 5.10; 95% CI [3.15, 8.23]), perceived small child size at birth (RR 2.08; 95% CI [1.62, 2.69]), and not benefiting from institutional delivery (RR 1.52; 95% CI [1.24, 1.87]) were associated with an increased risk of child stunting, as were maternal occupation, unimproved household drinking water, living in delta, coastal or upland areas, and poorer household wealth index quintile. Increased risk of child wasting was associated with maternal underweight (RR 1.64; 95% CI [1.11, 2.42]) and open defecation (RR 1.91; 95% CI [1.25, 2.92]) as well as maternal occupation and residence in a coastal area. Our findings indicate that the key drivers of child undernutrition in Myanmar are multifaceted and start in utero. Investing in scaling-up multisectoral approaches that include nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive interventions with a focus on improving maternal nutrition is essential for reducing child undernutrition and contributing to further gains in the country's human and economic development.

Assessing the Effectiveness of Policies Relating to Breastfeeding Promotion, Protection, and Support in Southeast Asia: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Study

Background

Despite its well-known benefits, breastfeeding practices remain suboptimal worldwide, including in Southeast Asia. Many countries in the region have thus enacted policies, such as maternity protection and the World Health Assembly International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (the Code), that protect, promote, and support breastfeeding. Yet the impact of such national legislation on breastfeeding practices is not well understood.

Objective

This study aims to review the content, implementation, and potential impact of policies relating to maternity protection and the Code in Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Methods

This mixed methods study includes a desk review, trend and secondary data analyses, and quantitative and qualitative data collection. Desk reviews will examine and compare the contents, implementation strategies, coverage, monitoring, and enforcement of national policies focusing on maternity protection and the Code in each country with global standards. Trend and secondary data analyses will examine the potential impact of these policies on relevant variables such as breast milk substitute (BMS) sales and women’s workforce participation. Quantitative data collection and analysis will be conducted to examine relevant stakeholders’ and beneficiaries’ perceptions about these policies. In each country, we will conduct up to 24 in-depth interviews (IDI) with stakeholders at national and provincial levels and 12 employers or 12 health workers. Per country, we will survey approximately 930 women who are pregnant or have a child aged 0-11 months, of whom approximately 36 will be invited for an IDI; 12 partners of the interviewed mothers or fathers of children from 0-11 months will also be interviewed.

Results

This study, funded in June 2018, was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of the relevant organizations (FHI 360: April 16, 2019 and May 18, 2020; and Hanoi University of Public Health: December 6, 2019). The dates of data collection are as follows: Vietnam: November and December 2019, May and June 2020; the Philippines: projected August 2020; Myanmar and Thailand: pending based on permissions and funding. Results are expected to be published in January 2021. As of July 2020, we had enrolled 1150 participants. We will present a comparison of key contents of the policies across countries and against international standards and recommendations and a comparison of implementation strategies, coverage, monitoring, and enforcement across countries. We will also present findings from secondary data and trend data analyses to propose the potential impact of a new or amended policy. For the surveys with women, we will present associations between exposure to maternity protection or BMS promotion on infant and young child feeding practices and their determinants. Findings from IDIs will highlight relevant stakeholders’ and beneficiaries’ perceptions.

Conclusions

This study will increase the understanding of the effectiveness of policy interventions to improve breastfeeding, which will be used to advocate for stronger policy adoption and enforcement in study countries and beyond.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/21286

National nutrition strategies that focus on maternal, infant, and young child nutrition in Southeast Asia do not consistently align with regional and international recommendations

We examined the consistency of national nutrition strategies and action plans (NNS) focusing on maternal, infant, and young child nutrition in Southeast Asia with regional and international recommendations. Between July and December 2017, we identified and extracted information on context, objectives, interventions, indicators, strategies, and coordination mechanisms from the most recent NNS in nine Southeast Asian countries. All NNS described context, objectives, and the following interventions: antenatal care, micronutrient supplementation during pregnancy, breastfeeding promotion, improved complementary feeding, nutrition in emergencies, and food fortification or dietary diversity. Micronutrient supplementation for young children was included in eight NNS; breastfeeding promotion during pregnancy and support at birth in seven; and school feeding, deworming, and treatment of severe acute malnutrition in six. All NNS contained programme monitoring and evaluation plans with measurable indicators and targets. Not all NNS covered wasting, exclusive breastfeeding, low birthweight, and childhood overweight. Strategies for achieving NNS goals and objectives were health system strengthening (nine), social and behaviour change communication (nine), targeting vulnerable groups (eight), and social or community mobilization (four). All addressed involvement, roles and responsibilities, and collaboration mechanisms among sectors and stakeholders. There was a delay in releasing NNS in Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines. In conclusion, although Southeast Asian NNS have similarities in structure and contents, some interventions and indicators vary by country and do not consistently align with regional and international recommendations. A database with regularly updated information on NNS components would facilitate cross-checking completeness within a country, comparison across countries, and knowledge sharing and learning.

Scaling Up Breastfeeding in Myanmar through the Becoming Breastfeeding Friendly Initiative

BACKGROUND

Optimal breastfeeding practices in Myanmar are above global averages, and the Ministry of Health and Sports (MoHS) has demonstrated its commitment to support nutrition and breastfeeding through continued policy and program actions. In 2017, the MoHS, in partnership with Save the Children, led the piloting of the Becoming Breastfeeding Friendly (BBF) Initiative. BBF provides a guide for countries to assess the enabling environment for breastfeeding and a country's readiness to scale up breastfeeding policies and programs.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to document the BBF process and outcomes in Myanmar.

METHODS

A Working Group (WG) of 14 members, led by a chair and 2 cochairs, conducted the BBF assessment using the BBF Index (BBFI), generated and prioritized recommendations, and disseminated the findings over the course of 5 meetings. Additional meetings were held to gain stakeholder endorsement and approval of the BBF process and WG before commencement and MoHS endorsement of the findings.

RESULTS

The BBFI score for Myanmar was 1.2 out of 3.0, which indicates a moderate environment for scaling up breastfeeding policies and programs. The Funding and Resources gear earned the lowest score (0.5), whereas Political Will earned the highest score (2.0). Overall, 4 gears were weak and 4 were moderate in strength. Nine recommendation themes were generated and prioritized. The top priority recommendation was to form a National Infant and Young Child Feeding Alliance. The MoHS endorsed the 9 recommendations in December 2018 and has provided leadership for the formation of the alliance.

CONCLUSIONS

The BBF Initiative was successfully conducted in Myanmar, resulting in 9 prioritized recommendations for strengthening the breastfeeding enabling environment and substantial interagency collaborations. Adaptations to the BBF process were made for the context, and we note numerous lessons learned that should be considered by other countries that plan to commit to the BBF Initiative.

The effect of intrinsic sympathomimetic activity on beta-receptor responsiveness after beta-adrenoceptor blockade withdrawal

1 Heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) changes supine, at 60 degrees tilt and in response to increasing exercise loads, and HR responses to Valsalva's manoeuvre and to isoprenaline bolus injections were studied in 19 healthy volunteers to assess the response to abrupt withdrawal of atenolol n = 6, propranolol n = 6 and pindolol n = 7. 2 The dosage of each drug administered double-blind was gradually increased over a period of 2 weeks and the dose to produce maximum inhibition of exercise-induced tachycardia was continued for one further week. 3 Plasma renin activity, plasma noradrenaline and serum free thyroid hormones were measured during control periods, maximum dosage and withdrawal periods. 4 An increased sensitivity to isoprenaline injections was seen on Day 5 after withdrawal in the atenolol treated group whereas the pindolol treated group showed decreasing hyposensitivity to isoprenaline for the 13 days of observation after withdrawal and propranolol showed an intermediate effect. 5 There was no overshoot in HR or BP measurements at rest or in response to tilting, Valsalva's manoeuvre or exercise with atenolol or propranolol and with pindolol the HR response to tilt only was significantly higher on the third day post-drug. 6 Plasma noradrenaline and serum free T3 were reduced on drug treatment and further reduced in the early withdrawal period but there were no consistent changes in plasma renin activity.