Laboratory model to evaluate the role of aerosols in the transport of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus

The aim of this study was to develop a model to evaluate the aerosol transmission of porcine reproductive and respiratory disease virus (PRRSV). PRRSV (MN 30-100 strain, total dose 3 x 10(6) virus particles) was aerosolised and transported up to 150 m and a portable air sampler was used to collect air samples at 1, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 m (five replicates at each distance) and the air samples were tested by TaqMan PCR and virus isolation. The infectivity of the aerosolised PRRSV was tested by exposing six PRRSV-naive pigs for three hours to aerosolised virus that had been transported 150 m. PRRSV RNA was detected in all five replicate air samples collected at 1, 30, 60 and 90 m, in four of the five collected at 120 m, and in three of the five collected at 150 m. Infectious PRRSV was detected by virus isolation at 1 and 30 m (all five replicates), 60, 90 and 120 m (three of the five) and 150 m (two of the five). There was a 50 per cent reduction in the log concentration of PRRSV RNA every 33 m. Three of the six pigs exposed to PRRSV-positive aerosols became infected, and PRRSV RNA was detected in air samples and on swab samples collected from the interior of the chambers that housed the infected pigs while they were being exposed.

Studies on the carriage and transmission of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus by individual houseflies (Musca domestica )

The objectives of the study were to determine the site of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in individual houseflies, to assess whether an individual housefly could transmit PRRSV to a susceptible pig, and to compare the ability of PCR, virus isolation and a pig bioassay to detect PRRSV in houseflies. In the first experiment 26 houseflies were fed on a pig infected experimentally with PRRSV; 13 were processed as a whole fly homogenate, while an exterior surface wash and a gut homogenate were collected from the other 13. Infectious PRRSV was recovered from nine of the whole fly homogenates, 12 of the gut homogenates and one of the exterior surface washes. In the second experiment, two of 10 individual houseflies, which had fed on an infected pig, transmitted PRRSV to a susceptible pig in a controlled manual transmission protocol. In the third experiment, single flies or pools of 30 flies were immersed in different concentrations of a PRRSV inoculum, then tested by PCR, virus isolation and bioassay. The virus was detected at a concentration of 10(1) TCID50/ml by PCR, 10(2) TCID50/ml by the bioassay and 10(3) TCID50/ml by virus isolation.

Transmission of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus by houseflies (Musca domestica)

Three hundred houseflies were allowed to feed on donor pigs viraemic with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) on the fifth, sixth and seventh days after the pigs had been inoculated with the virus. After 60 seconds, the flies' feeding was interrupted, and they were transferred manually to feed to repletion on a naive recipient pig housed in a separate room. To enhance the chance of the flies obtaining the pigs' blood, the back of each pig was scarified with sandpaper until a slight haemorrhage was visible. The PRRSV was transmitted from the donor to the recipient pigs, and PRRSV RNA was detected by reverse transcriptase-PCR from homogenates of the flies. In a second experiment, 210 houseflies were allowed to feed to repletion on a PRRSV-infected pig on the sixth day after it had been inoculated, and were then maintained under laboratory conditions. Groups of 30 flies were collected immediately after they had fed and six, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours later, and were tested for PRRSV. Homogenates of the flies collected up to six hours after feeding were PCR- and pig bioassay-positive, but the others were negative by both tests.

Transmission of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus from persistently infected sows to contact controls

The objective of this study was to determine if porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) could persist in non-pregnant sows and if persistently infected sows could transmit virus to naive contact controls. Twelve PRRSV-naive, non-pregnant sows (index sows) were infected with a field isolate of PRRSV and housed in individual isolation rooms for 42 to 56 days postinfection. Following this period, 1 naive contact sow was placed in each room divided by a gate allowing nose-to-nose contact with a single index sow. Index sows were not viremic at the time of contact sow entry. Virus nucleic acid was detected by polymerase chain reaction, and infectious virus was detected by virus isolation in sera from 3 of the 12 contact sows at 49, 56, and 86 days postinfection. All 3 infected contacts developed PRRSV antibodies. Virus nucleic acid was detected in tissues of all of the 12 index sows at 72 or 86 days postinfection. Nucleic acid sequencing indicated that representative samples from index and infected contacts were homologous (> 99%) to the PRRSV used to infect index sows at the onset of the study. This study demonstrates that PRRSV can persist in sows and that persistently infected sows can transmit virus to naive contact animals.

Diagnostic investigation of chronic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in a breeding herd of pigs

Forty-five sows and 15 boars were selected at random from a breeding herd known to be chronically infected with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and lymphoid, immune-privileged, and non-lymphoid/non-immune-privileged tissues were tested for the presence of the virus by PCR, virus isolation, and immunohistochemistry. The virus was isolated from the lateral retropharyngeal lymph node of one sow; the isolate was nucleic acid sequenced and determined to be of field origin, and it was inoculated into two PRRSV-naive pregnant sows (A and B) at 95 days of gestation. They were necropsied 14 days later and samples of maternal and fetal tissue and blood samples were collected. Sow A had 10 fresh, six partially autolysed, and two mummified fetuses, and sow B had six fresh and viable fetuses. Viral nucleic acid was detected by PCR in tissue pools from each sow and also from pooled fetal tissues, and the virus was isolated from fetal pools from sow A.

Epidemiological and diagnostic observations following the elimination of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus from a breeding herd of pigs by the test and removal protocol

The protocol of test and removal for the elimination of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus was applied to an 825-sow breeding herd. All the adult animals were tested and serum samples analysed by ELISA and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Eighty-eight animals (10 x 7 per cent) were removed from the herd and, of these, three were ELISA-pOSitive and PCR-positive, and 85 were ELISA-positive and PCR-negative. They tended to be either individual sows, or groups of four to six animals housed in adjacent gestation stalls. Four of the ELISA-positive, PCR-negative sows were slaughtered and PRRS virus nucleic acid was detected in a sample of sternal lymph node from one of them. After the completion of the test and removal protocol, the breeding and finishing populations were monitored for 12 consecutive months by ELISA. The 960 samples taken were negative for PRRS virus antibodies.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection in neonatal pigs characterised by marked neurovirulence

Neonatal pigs from three herds of pigs were somnolent and inappetent and had microscopic lesions characterised by severe meningoencephalitis, necrotic interstitial pneumonia and gastric muscular inflammation. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection was diagnosed and confirmed by virus isolation, fluorescent antibody examination of frozen lung sections, serology, immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridisation. Each herd had a history of PRRSV infection and was using or had used a modified-live vaccine. The isolates from the affected pigs were genetically distinct from the modified-live vaccine strain of the virus when compared by restriction enzyme analysis and nucleotide sequencing of PRRSV open reading frames 5 and 6. The virus was identified in macrophages or microglia of brain lesions by immunohistochemical staining of brain sections with an anti-PRRSV monoclonal antibody and an anti-macrophage antibody. The replication of the virus in the brain was verified by in situ hybridisation. The meningoencephalitis induced by the virus in pigs from each of the herds was unusually severe and the brain lesions were atypical when compared with other descriptions of encephalitis induced by the virus, which should therefore be considered as a possible diagnosis for neonatal pigs with severe meningoencephalitis. In addition, field isolates of the virus which are capable of causing disease can emerge and coexist with modified-live vaccine virus in some pig herds.

Identification of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in semen and tissues from vasectomized and nonvasectomized boars

Previous studies have indicated that porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) can be identified in and transmitted through boar semen. However, the site(s) of replication indicating the origin of PRRSV in semen has not been identified. To determine how PRRSV enters boar semen, five vasectomized and two nonvasectomized PRRSV-seronegative boars were intranasally inoculated with PRRSV isolate VR-2332. Semen was collected three times weekly from each boar and separated into cellular and cell-free (seminal plasma) fractions. Both fractions were evaluated by reverse transcriptase nested polymerase chain reaction (RT-nPCR) for the presence of PRRSV RNA. Viremia and serostatus were evaluated once weekly, and boars were euthanatized 21 days postinoculation (DPI). Tissues were collected and evaluated by RT-nPCR, virus isolation (VI), and immunohistochemistry to identify PRRSV RNA, infectious virus, or viral antigen, respectively. PRRSV RNA was identified in semen from all vasectomized and nonvasectomized boars and was most consistently found in the cell fraction, within cells identified with a macrophage marker. Viral replication as determined by VI was predominately found within lymphoid tissue. However, PRRSV RNA was widely disseminated throughout many tissues, including the reproductive tract at 21 DPI. These results indicate that PRRSV can enter semen independent of testicular or epididymal tissues, and the source of PRRSV in semen is virus-infected monocytes/macrophages or non-cell-associated virus in serum. PRRSV-infected macrophages in semen may result from infection of local tissue macrophages or may originate from PRRSV-infected circulating monocytes or macrophages.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome

In 1987, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) was recognized in the USA as a new disease of swine causing late-term reproductive failure and severe pneumonia in neonatal pigs. The syndrome is caused by an RNA virus referred to as PRRS virus (PRRSV), which is classified in the family Arteriviridae. Swine macrophages are the only indigenous cell type known to support PRRSV replication. Direct contact between infected and naive pigs is the predominant route of PRRSV transmission. Exposure of a mucosal surface to PRRSV leads to virus replication in regional macrophages, a prolonged viremia and systemic distribution of virus to other macrophage populations. Reproductive failure induced by PRRSV infection in late-gestation sows is characterized by premature farrowing of stillborn, partially autolyzed, and mummified fetuses. Pneumonia caused by PRRSV infection is more severe in young pigs compared to adults and may be complicated by concurrent bacterial infections. Gross lung lesions associated with PRRSV infection vary from none to diffuse consolidation. In addition, multiple lymph nodes may be markedly enlarged. Microscopically, PRRSV-pneumonia is characterized by multifocal, interstitial thickening by macrophages and necrotic cell debris in alveoli. Other less common microscopic lesions of PRRSV infection include myocarditis, vasculitis, encephalitis, and lymphoid hypertrophy and hyperplasia. In acute or subacute PRRSV infections, serum and lung are the best specimens for diagnosis. Persistent PRRSV infections can be produced by transplacental or intranasal infection. Persistent PRRSV infections are an important factor for virus survival and transmission within a swine herd and will complicate control programs.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection of gnotobiotic pigs: sites of virus replication and co-localization with MAC-387 staining at 21 days post-infection

The organ distribution of PRRSV-infected cells in gnotobiotic piglets at 21 days after infection with PRRSV isolate VR-2332 was examined by in situ hybridization. Cells that expressed PRRSV RNA were identified in all tissues examined, including organs not usually characterized as sites of PRRSV infection. PRRSV-infected cells frequently appeared in clusters and were not always associated with microscopic lesions. The expression of PRRSV RNA co-localized with a macrophage monoclonal antibody, MAC-387, in lymph nodes. Some, but not all infected cells stained with MAC-387. The wide distribution of PRRSV-infected cells and co-localization with MAC-387 staining is consistent with the macrophage-tropism of PRRSV and is similar to observations made during persistent infection with other arteriviruses.

Chronological immunohistochemical detection and localization of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in gnotobiotic pigs

An immunogold-silver immunohistochemical technique was used to determine the chronological distribution and localization of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in experimentally infected gnotobiotic pigs. Thirty-two pigs were randomly allocated to infected (n = 24) or control (n = 8) groups. Pigs in infected groups were inoculated at 3 days of age by nasal instillation of PRRSV isolate ATCC VR-2332 (total dose = 10(2.64) TCID50), and control pigs were exposed in the same manner to uninfected cell culture supernatant. Three infected and one control pigs were euthanatized at 12 hours and at 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 14, and 21 days postexposure (DPE). Bronchiolar epithelial cells, arteriolar endothelial cells, monocytes, and interstitial, alveolar, and intravascular macrophages stained for PRRSV antigen at 12 hours postexposure. Staining for PRRSV antigen in endothelial cells, monocytes, and alveolar, interstitial, and intravascular macrophages was most intense and widespread in lung sections from 14 and 21 DPE. In the heart, macrophages in the interstitial and subendocardial spaces and endothelial cells in a few arterioles stained for PRRSV antigen at 14 and 21 DPE. Tonsillar macrophages and mucosal epithelium stained for PRRSV antigen at 12 hours postexposure and sporadically with less intensity in subsequent sampling periods. In the nasal turbinate, PRRSV antigen was identified in macrophages within the mucosal epithelium at 12 hours postexposure and again at 14 and 21 DPE. There was focal staining for PRRSV antigen in the choroid plexus in one pig at 14 DPE. Based on the results of this experiment, the pathogenesis of PRRSV infection in gnotobiotic pigs can be described as initial virus entry through nasal epithelial, tonsillar, and pulmonary macrophages, with viremia occurring by 12 hours postexposure followed by the development of pneumonia, myocarditis, encephalitis, rhinitis, vasculitis, and lymphoid necrosis. Although PRRSV can infect macrophages in heart, tonsil, turbinate, and choroid plexus, pulmonary macrophages are predominantly and consistently infected and are the predominantly cells for virus replication in gnotobiotic pigs.

Fetal microscopic lesions in porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus-induced abortion

Microscopic lesions in four cases of abortion caused by porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) were characterized by arteritis, myocarditis, and encephalitis. Fetal PRRSV infection was confirmed by virus isolation or immunohistochemistry and serology. Although fetal microscopic lesions in PRRSV abortions are rarely reported, diagnosticians should consider PRRSV when these lesions occur.

Pathogenesis of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection in gnotobiotic pigs

The pathogenesis of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) was determined in gnotobiotic pigs by studying the sequential development of microscopic lesions and sites of virus distribution and replication. Thirty-two pigs (three pigs/infected group and one pig/control group) were inoculated by nasal instillation of either PRRSV isolate ATCC VR-2332 (total dose 10(2.6) TCID50) or uninfected cell culture supernatant. Infected and control pigs were euthanized at 12 hours, and 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 14, and 21 days postexposure (PE). Gnotobiotic pigs experimentally infected with PRRSV were viremic by 12 hours PE and subsequently developed pneumonia, lymphadenopathy, vasculitis, myocarditis and encephalitis. Lung lesions developed by day 3 PE, persisted through day 21 PE and were characterized by alveolar septa thickened by macrophages, alveolar proteinaceous and karyorrhectic debris, alveolar syncytial cells, and multifocal type II pneumocyte hypertrophy. Lymph node lesions varied in distribution and severity and were characterized by germinal center hypertrophy and hyperplasia, lymphocyte necrosis, multiple cystic spaces, and polykaryocytes within the cystic spaces. Heart lesions were a late feature of infection and all infected pigs had heart lesions on day 21 PE characterized by subendocardial, myocardial, and perivascular foci of lymphocytes. Vasculitis also varied in distribution and severity and affected all sizes of vessels. Results of this experiment indicate that PRRSV is a multisystem disease characterized initially by viremia with subsequent virus distribution and replication in multiple organs causing interstitial pneumonia, vasculitis, lymphadenopathy, myocarditis, and encephalitis.

Neospora caninum pneumonia in an adult dog

Neospora caninum was identified in a lung aspirate specimen from an adult dog with severe pneumonia. Neosporosis was tentatively diagnosed by cytologic examination of a Wright-Giemsa-stained smear of the aspirate specimen, using light microscopy. The infection was confirmed by immunohistochemical examination of a section of lung tissue obtained at necropsy. Neosporosis is usually a fatal ascending neurologic disease of dogs less than 1 year of age. Neospora caninum infections are uncommon in adult dogs and do not have a consistent clinical course. The disease in the dog of this report was unique because the dog had clinical respiratory tract disease and because preliminary diagnosis was made by cytologic examination.

Experimental porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection in one-, four-, and 10-week-old pigs

One-, 4-, and 10-week-old pigs were exposed to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) to determine the effect of age on clinical signs, hematologic alterations, the onset and duration of viremia, routes of virus shedding, antibody production, and microscopic lesions produced by PRRSV isolate ATCC VR-2332. The response to PRRSV infection was similar among age groups. Fever, usually prolonged, and a marked dyspnea with cutaneous erythema when restrained for sample collection were the most consistent clinical signs. Prolonged periocular edema was unique to the 1-week-old pigs. The white blood cell count was decreased on day 4 postexposure (PE) due to decreases in neutrophils and lymphocytes. The virus was isolated from buffy coats at day 1 PE and was isolated from serum, buffy coat, or plasma at each sample collection period through the end of the trial (day 28 PE). Virus was most consistently isolated from lung, lymph node, spleen, and tonsil on day 7 PE and exclusively from lymph node, spleen, and tonsil on day 28 PE. Virus was infrequently isolated from urine and fecal and nasal swabs. Consistent microscopic changes in all age groups included interstitial pneumonia and lymph node hypertrophy and hyperplasia on days 7 and 28 PE, lymph node necrosis on day 7 PE, and subacute mononuclear myocarditis on day 28 PE. Findings presented here indicate that interstitial pneumonia, lymphoid necrosis, and mononuclear myocarditis are characteristic lesions of PRRSV isolate ATCC VR-2332 infection in 1-, 4-, and 10-week-old pigs.