Reproductive morphology and its application in testing molecular systematic hypotheses in the family Gobiidae (Teleostei, Gobiiformes)

This study uses histological techniques to make a detailed comparison of the reproductive morphologies of four gobiid genera, Amblyeleotris, Ctenogobiops, Fusigobius and Kraemeria. Three distinct reproductive morphological patterns were observed. All species examined in the genus Fusigobius exhibit either an ovariform or testiform gonad and precursive accessory gonadal structures (pAGS) associated with each of the gonadal lobes, regardless of gonadal state. In contrast, among species of Amblyeleotris, Ctenogobiops and Kraemeria examined, pAGS were not found. Furthermore, Amblyeleotris and Ctenogobiops differ from both Kraemeria and Fusigobius in lacking AGS associated with the testiform gonad. These findings, based solely on reproductive morphology, suggest that Kraemeria and Fusigobius may be more closely related to each other than either is to Amblyeleotris and Ctenogobiops. Findings of this study support the view that reproductive morphological patterns could prove informative in elucidating evolutionary relationships within the family Gobiidae.

Rediscovering hermaphroditism in Grammatidae with the description of the testicular gland in Brazilian Basslet Gramma brasiliensis

Many aspects of sex change in reef fishes have been studied, including behavior and social organization. However, gonad histology remains the most robust way to identify sexual patterns in fishes. Some uncommon tissues remain poorly described, such as the accessory gonadal structures found in species from the Gobiidae family, which are rare in other bony fishes. This is the first report of the testicular gland in Gramma brasiliensis and for the Grammatidae family. Between April 2011 and February 2012 eighty specimens were collected during four dive campaigns on the Taipus de Fora reef (13°56'20"S 38°55'32"W), Bahia, Northeast Brazil, and their sex was determined. Thirteen per cent of the active-females and 90% of the active-males had testicular gland tissue in their ovotestis. This discovery led to additional research into the characteristics of the gland tissue and its relationship with gonadal maturation. Three patterns of testicular gland development were found in Brazilian basslet ovotestis. Both ova and sperm-producing gonad contained testicular gland tissue, and the appearance of this tissue seems to be the first modification of ovotestis tissue marking the beginning of the protogynous sex-change process in G. brasiliensis.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF FERTILIZED ARBACIA EGG SUSPENSIONS

From the low frequency alternating current impedance and the volume concentrations of suspensions of Arbacia eggs, it is shown that the high resistance membrane is either at or very near the plasma membrane for both unfertilized and fertilized eggs, and that the specific resistances of the perivitelline space and fertilization membrane are not greatly different from that of sea water. The effect of the capacity element which appears after fertilization at intermediate frequencies is considerably less than in the earlier experiments on Arbacia and Hipponoë eggs. These findings indicate that the fertilization membrane does not have the high capacity previously attributed to it and that the increase in membrane capacity takes place at or near the plasma membrane.

LONGITUDINAL IMPEDANCE OF THE SQUID GIANT AXON

Longitudinal alternating current impedance measurements have been made on the squid giant axon over the frequency range from 30 cycles per second to 200 kc. per second. Large sea water electrodes were used and the inter-electrode length was immersed in oil. The impedance at high frequency was approximately as predicted theoretically on the basis of the poorly conducting dielectric characteristics of the membrane previously determined. For the large majority of the axons, the impedance reached a maximum at a low frequency and the reactance then vanished at a frequency between 150 and 300 cycles per second. Below this frequency, the reactance was inductive, reaching a maximum and then approaching zero as the frequency was decreased. The inductive reactance is a property of the axon and requires that it contain an inductive structure. The variation of the impedance with interpolar distance indicates that the inductance is in the membrane. The impedance characteristics of the membrane as calculated from the measured longitudinal impedance of the axon may be expressed by an equivalent membrane circuit containing inductance, capacity, and resistance. For a square centimeter of membrane the capacity of 1 µf with dielectric loss is shunted by the series combination of a resistance of 400 ohms and an inductance of one-fifth henry.

MEMBRANE AND PROTOPLASM RESISTANCE IN THE SQUID GIANT AXON

The direct current longitudinal resistance of the squid giant axon was measured as a function of the electrode separation. Large sea water electrodes were used and the inter-electrode length was immersed in oil. The slope of the resistance vs. separation curve is large for a small electrode separation, but becomes smaller and finally constant as the separation is increased. An analysis of the resistance vs. length curves gives the following results. The nerve membrane has a resistance of about 1000 ohm cm.² The protoplasm has a specific resistance of about 1.4 times that of sea water. The resistance of the connective tissue sheath outside the fiber corresponds to a layer of sea water about 20µ in thickness. The characteristic length for the axon is about 2.3 mm. in oil and 6.0 mm. in sea water.

MEMBRANE POTENTIAL OF THE SQUID GIANT AXON DURING CURRENT FLOW

The squid giant axon was placed in a shallow narrow trough and current was sent in at two electrodes in opposite sides of the trough and out at a third electrode several centimeters away. The potential difference across the membrane was measured between an inside fine capillary electrode with its tip in the axoplasm between the pair of polarizing electrodes, and an outside capillary electrode with its tip flush with the surface of one polarizing electrode. The initial transient was roughly exponential at the anode make and damped oscillatory at the sub-threshold cathode make with the action potential arising from the first maximum when threshold was reached. The constant change of membrane potential, after the initial transient, was measured as a function of the total polarizing current and from these data the membrane potential is obtained as a function of the membrane current density. The absolute value of the resting membrane resistance approached at low polarizing currents is about 23 ohm cm.(2). This low value is considered to be a result of the puncture of the axon. The membrane was found to be an excellent rectifier with a ratio of about one hundred between the high resistance at the anode and the low resistance at the cathode for the current range investigated. On the assumption that the membrane conductance is a measure of its ion permeability, these experiments show an increase of ion permeability under a cathode and a decrease under an anode.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF SINGLE MARINE EGGS

Alternating current impedance measurements have been made on several single marine eggs over the frequency range from 1 to 2500 kilocycles per second. The eggs were placed in the center of a short capillary made by heating the end of a 2 mm. thin walled glass tube until it nearly closed, and electrodes were placed in the sea water on each side of the egg. When it is assumed that the membrane conductance is negligible, the membrane capacity and internal resistances of unfertilized and fertilized Arbacia eggs agree with the values obtained from suspensions. Preliminary data on centrifugally separated half Arbacia eggs, and whole Cumingia and Chaetopterus eggs are given.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF THE SQUID GIANT AXON DURING ACTIVITY

Alternating current impedance measurements have been made over a wide frequency range on the giant axon from the stellar nerve of the squid, Loligo pealii, during the passage of a nerve impulse. The transverse impedance was measured between narrow electrodes on either side of the axon with a Wheatstone bridge having an amplifier and cathode ray oscillograph for detector. When the bridge was balanced, the resting axon gave a narrow line on the oscillograph screen as a sweep circuit moved the spot across. As an impulse passed between impedance electrodes after the axon had been stimulated at one end, the oscillograph line first broadened into a band, indicating a bridge unbalance, and then narrowed down to balance during recovery. From measurements made during the passage of the impulse and appropriate analysis, it was found that the membrane phase angle was unchanged, the membrane capacity decreased about 2 per cent, while the membrane conductance fell from a resting value of 1000 ohm cm.² to an average of 25 ohm cm.² The onset of the resistance change occurs somewhat after the start of the monophasic action potential, but coincides quite closely with the point of inflection on the rising phase, where the membrane current reverses in direction, corresponding to a decrease in the membrane electromotive force. This E.M.F. and the conductance are closely associated properties of the membrane, and their sudden changes constitute, or are due to, the activity which is responsible for the all-or-none law and the initiation and propagation of the nerve impulse. These results correspond to those previously found for Nitella and lead us to expect similar phenomena in other nerve fibers.

ELECTRIC PHASE ANGLE OF CELL MEMBRANES

From the theory of an electric network containing any combination of resistances and a single variable impedance element having a constant phase angle independent of frequency, it is shown that the graph of the terminal series reactance against the resistance is an arc of a circle with the position of the center depending upon the phase angle of the variable element. If it be assumed that biological systems are equivalent to such a network, the hypotheses are supported at low and intermediate frequencies by data on red blood cells, muscle, nerve, and potato. For some tissues there is a marked divergence from the circle at high frequencies, which is not interpreted.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF HIPPONOE EGGS

Alternating current resistance and capacity measurements have been made from 1.08 10(3) to 2.32 10(6) cycles per second on suspensions of unfertilized, fertilized, and swollen unfertilized eggs of the echinoderm Hipponoë esculenta. A simple method has been developed for measuring the volume concentration of eggs in a suspension. The membrane of the unfertilized egg is practically non-conducting at low frequencies and shows a static capacity of 0.87 microf/cm.(2) except perhaps at the highest frequencies. The equivalent specific resistance of the egg interior is 11 times that of sea water. The membrane of the fertilized egg is practically non-conducting at low frequencies and shows a static capacity 2.5 times that of the unfertilized egg except at the higher frequencies where another reactive element produces a marked effect. The internal resistance is apparently higher than that of the unfertilized egg. The static capacity per unit area of the membrane decreases as a linear function of the surface area when the eggs are swollen in dilute sea water. In 40 per cent sea water, the capacity falls to about 75 per cent of normal.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF ARBACIA EGGS

The alternating current resistance and capacity of suspensions of unfertilized and fertilized eggs of Arbacia punctulata have been measured at frequencies from 10³ to 1.64 x 10⁷ cycles per second. The unfertilized egg has a static plasma membrane capacity of 0.73 µf./cm.² which is practically independent of frequency. The fertilized egg has a static membrane capacity of 3.1 µf./cm.² at low frequencies which decreases to a value of 0.55 µf./cm.² at high frequencies. The decrease follows closely the relaxation dispersion of the dielectric constant if the dissipation of such a system is ignored. It is considered more probable that the effect is due to a fertilization membrane of 3.1 µf./cm.² capacity lifted 1.5 µ. from the plasma membrane, the interspace having the conductivity of sea water. The suspensions show a frequency-dependent capacity at low frequencies which may be attributable to surface conductance. The equivalent low frequency internal specific resistance of both the unfertilized and fertilized egg is about 186 ohm cm. or about 6 times that of sea water, while the high frequency data extrapolate to a value of about 4 times sea water. There is evidence at the highest frequencies that the current is penetrating the nucleus and other materials in the cytoplasm. If this effect were entirely due to the nucleus it would lead to a very approximate value of 0.1 µf./cm.² for the capacity of the nuclear membrane. The measurements do not indicate any change in this effect on fertilization.

TRANSVERSE ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF THE SQUID GIANT AXON

The impedance of the excised giant axon from hindmost stellar nerve of Loligo pealii has been measured over the frequency range from 1 to 2500 kilocycles per second. The measurements have been made with the current flow perpendicular to the axis of the axon to permit a relatively simple analysis of the data. It has been found that the axon membrane has a polarization impedance with an average phase angle of 76° and an average capacity of 1.1µf./cm² at 1 kilocycle. The direct current resistance of the membrane could not be measured, but was greater than 3 ohm cm.² and the average internal specific resistance was four times that of sea water. There was no detectable change in the membrane impedance when the axon lost excitability, but some time later it decreased to zero.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF ASTERIAS EGGS

The alternating current resistance and capacity of suspensions of unfertilized eggs of Asterias forbesi have been measured at frequencies from one thousand to sixteen million cycles per second. The plasma membrane of the egg has a static capacity of 1.10µf/cm.² which is practically independent of frequency. The suspensions show a capacity dependent on frequency at low frequencies which may be attributable to surface conductance. The specific resistance of the cytoplasm is between 136 and 225 ohm cm. (4 to 7 times sea water), indicating a relatively high concentration of non-electrolytes. At frequencies above one million cycles there is definite evidence of another element of which the nucleus is presumably a part.

TRANSVERSE IMPEDANCE OF THE SQUID GIANT AXON DURING CURRENT FLOW

The change in the transverse impedance of the squid giant axon caused by direct current flow has been measured at frequencies from 1 kc. per second to 500 kc. per second. The impedance change is equivalent to an increase of membrane conductance at the cathode to a maximum value approximately the same as that obtained during activity and a decrease at the anode to a minimum not far from zero. There is no evidence of appreciable membrane capacity change in either case. It then follows that the membrane has the electrical characteristics of a rectifier. Interpreting the membrane conductance as a measure of ion permeability, this permeability is increased at the cathode and decreased at the anode.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF THE FROG EGG

Electrical impedance measurements were made upon unfertilized and fertilized eggs of the leopard frog, Rana pipiens, over a frequency range of 0.05 to 10 kc. Average values of 170 ohm cm.² were obtained for the plasma membrane resistance of the egg, 2.0 µf/cm.² for the plasma membrane capacity, 86° for the phase angle of the membrane, and 570 ohm cm. for the specific resistance of the interior. These values did not change upon fertilization. No spontaneous rhythmical impedance changes such as have been found by Hubbard and Rothschild in the trout egg were found in frog eggs.

RECTIFICATION AND INDUCTANCE IN THE SQUID GIANT AXON

Previous measurements have shown that the electrical properties of the squid axon membrane are approximately equivalent to those of a circuit containing a capacity shunted by an inductance and a rectifier in series. Selective ion permeability of a membrane separating two electrolytes may be expected to give rise to the rectification. A quasi-crystalline piezoelectric structure of the membrane is a plausible explanation of the inductance. Some approximate calculations of behavior of an axon with these membrane characteristics have been made. Fair agreement is obtained with the observed constant current subthreshold potential and impedance during the foot of the action potential. In a simple case a formal analogy is found between the calculated membrane potential and the excitability defined by the two factor formulations of excitation. Several excitation phenomena may then be explained semi-quantitatively by further assuming the excitability proportional to the membrane potential. Some previous measurements and subthreshold potential and excitability observations are not consistent with the circuit considered and indicate that this circuit is only approximately equivalent to the membrane.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF SUSPENSIONS OF SPHERES

A general expression has been derived for the electric impedance of a suspension of spheres each having a homogeneous non-reactive interior and a thin surface layer with both resistance and reactance. The applications and limitations of impedance measurements on such suspensions are discussed.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF SUSPENSIONS OF ARBACIA EGGS

Apparatus has been designed and constructed for the measurement of the electric impedance of suspensions of Arbacia eggs in sea water to alternating currents of frequencies from one thousand to fifteen million cycles per second. This apparatus is simple, rugged, compact, accurate, and rapid. The data lead to the conclusions that the specific resistance of the interior of the egg is about 90 ohm cm. or 3.6 times that of sea water, and that the impedance of the surface of the egg is probably similar to that of a "polarization capacity". The characteristics of this surface impedance can best be determined by measurements of the capacity and resistance of suspensions of eggs. No specific change has been found in the interior resistance or the surface impedance which can be related either to membrane formation or to cell division.

TRANSVERSE ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF NITELLA

Alternating current measurements have been taken on single Nitella cells over a frequency range from 30 to 2,500,000 cycles per second with the current flow perpendicular to the axis of the cell. The measuring cells were so constructed that electrolytes of any desired concentration could be circulated during the course of the measurements. The cellulose wall which surrounds the cell is found to play an important part in the interpretation of the results obtained. In a mature cell, this cellulose has a specific resistance of about 1000 ohm cm. which is independent of the medium in which the cell is suspended. The thickness of the wall is computed to be about 10 µ. The cell membrane is found to be virtually non-conducting, and to have a capacity of 0.94 µf./cm.² ± 10 per cent and a phase angle of 80° ± 4°. The specific resistances of the sap were difficult to compute from data on living cells and were unsatisfactory because they were very much dependent upon the medium, while measurements on extracted sap gave 58 ohm cm. ± 8 per cent which was independent of the medium. There are indications that the chloroplasts have impedance properties similar to those of living cells.

ELECTRIC IMPEDANCE OF NITELLA DURING ACTIVITY

The changes in the alternating current impedance which occur during activity of cells of the fresh water plant Nitella have been measured with the current flow normal to the cell axis, at eight frequencies from 0.05 to 20 kilocycles per second, and with simultaneous records of the action potential under the impedance electrodes. At each frequency the resting cell was balanced in a Wheatstone bridge with a cathode ray oscillograph, and after electrical stimulation at one end of the cell, the changes in the complex impedance were determined from the bridge unbalance recorded by motion pictures of the oscillograph figure. An extension of the previous technique of interpretation of the transverse impedance shows that the normal membrane capacity of 0.9 µf./cm.² decreases about 15 per cent without change of phase angle, while the membrane resistance decreases from 10⁵ ohm cm.² to about 500 ohm cm.² during the passage of the excitation wave. This membrane change occurs during the latter part of the rising phase of the action potential, and it is shown that the membrane electromotive force remains unchanged until nearly the same time. The part of the action potential preceding these membrane changes is probably a passive fall of potential ahead of a partial short circuit.

Dynamic evolution of antibody populations in a rhesus macaque infected with attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus identified by surface plasmon resonance

BACKGROUND

Increasing evidence suggests that an effective AIDS vaccine will need to elicit broadly neutralizing antibody responses. However, the mechanisms of antibody-mediated neutralization have not been defined. Previous studies from our lab have identified significant differences in the rates of antibody binding to trimeric SIV envelope proteins that correlate with neutralization sensitivity. Importantly, these results demonstrate differences in monoclonal antibody (MAb) binding to neutralization-sensitive and neutralization-resistant envelope proteins, suggesting that one mechanism for virus neutralization may be related to the stability of antibody binding. To date, little has been done to evaluate the binding properties of polyclonal serum antibodies elicited by SIV infection or vaccination.

METHODS

In the current study, we translate these findings with MAbs to study antibody binding properties of polyclonal serum antibody responses generated in rhesus macaques infected with attenuated SIV. Quantitative and qualitative binding properties of well-characterized longitudinal serum samples to trimeric, recombinant SIV gp140 envelope proteins were analyzed using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology (Biacore).

RESULTS

Results from these studies identified two antibody populations in most of the samples analyzed; one antibody population exhibited fast association/dissociation rates (unstable) while the other population demonstrated slower association/dissociation rates (stable). Over time, the percentage of the total binding response of each antibody population evolved, demonstrating a dynamic evolution of the antibody response that was consistent with the maturation of antibody responses defined using our standard panel of serological assays. However, the current studies provided a higher resolution analysis of polyclonal antibody binding properties, particularly with respect to the early time-points post-infection (PI), that is not possible with standard serological assays. More importantly, the increased stability of the antibody population with time PI corresponded with potent neutralization of homologous SIV in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the stability of the antibody-envelope interaction may be an important mechanism of serum antibody virus neutralization. In addition, measurements of the 'apparent' rates of association and dissociation may offer unique numerical descriptors to characterize the level of antibody maturation achieved by candidate vaccine strategies capable of eliciting broadly neutralizing antibody responses.

Local μ and δ opioid receptors regulate amphetamine-induced behavior and neuropeptide mRNA in the striatum

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role that mu and delta opioid receptor blockade has upon stimulant-induced behavior and neuropeptide gene expression in the striatum. Acute administration of amphetamine (2.5 mg/kg i.p.) caused an increase in behavioral activity and preprodynorphin, substance P, and preproenkephalin mRNA expression. Intrastriatal infusion of the mu opioid antagonist, H-D-Phe-Cys-Tyr-D-Trp-Arg-Thr-Pen-Thr-NH(2) (CTAP), or the delta opioid antagonist, H-Tyr-Tic[CH(2)NH]-Phe-Phe-OH (TIPPpsi), significantly decreased amphetamine-induced vertical activity. However, only CTAP reduced amphetamine-induced distance traveled. Quantitative in situ hybridization histochemistry revealed that CTAP blocked amphetamine-induced preprodynorphin and substance P mRNA. However, preproenkephalin mRNA levels in the dorsal striatum were increased to the same extent by CTAP, amphetamine, or a combination of the two drugs. In contrast, TIPPpsi significantly decreased amphetamine-induced mRNA expression of all three neuropeptides. These data indicate that both mu and delta receptor subtypes differentially regulate amphetamine-induced behavior and neuropeptide gene expression in the rat striatum.

Characterization of neutralization epitopes of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) recognized by rhesus monoclonal antibodies derived from monkeys infected with an attenuated SIV strain

A major limitation in the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) system has been the lack of reagents with which to identify the antigenic determinants that are responsible for eliciting neutralizing antibody responses in macaques infected with attenuated SIV. Most of our information on SIV neutralization determinants has come from studies with murine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) produced in response to purified or recombinant SIV envelope proteins or intact SIV-infected cells for relatively short periods of time. While these studies provide some basic information on the potential immunogenic determinants of SIV envelope proteins, it is unclear whether these murine MAbs identify epitopes relevant to antibody responses elicited in monkeys during infection with either wild-type or attenuated SIV strains. To accomplish maximum biological relevance, we developed a reliable method for the production of rhesus monoclonal antibodies. In the present study, we report on the production and characterization of a unique panel of monoclonal antibodies derived from four individual monkeys inoculated with SIV/17E-CL as an attenuated virus strain at a time when protective immunity from pathogenic challenge was evident. Results from these studies identified at least nine binding domains on the surface envelope glycoprotein; these included linear determinants in the V1, V2, cysteine loop (analogous to the V3 loop in human immunodeficiency virus type 1), and C5 regions, as well as conformational epitopes represented by antibodies that bind the C-terminal half of gp120 and those sensitive to defined mutations in the V4 region. More importantly, three groups of antibodies that recognize closely related, conformational epitopes exhibited potent neutralizing activity against the vaccine strain. Identification of the epitopes recognized by these neutralizing antibodies will provide insight into the antigenic determinants responsible for eliciting neutralizing antibodies in vivo that can be used in the design of effective vaccine strategies.

Maturation of envelope-specific antibody responses to linear determinants in monkeys inoculated with attenuated SIV

We have previously used a panel of quantitative and qualitative serological assays to define a lengthy and complex maturation of envelope-specific antibody responses in monkeys experimentally infected with attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that is closely associated with the temporal development of enduring and protective immunity to experimental virus challenge. To elucidate in more detail the changes in antibody specificity associated with this maturation, we describe here 'domain-specific' serological studies to characterize the evolution of antibody responses to defined linear determinants of the SIV envelope protein. The results of these studies reveal for the first time distinguishing differences in the evolution of antibody populations to distinct envelope peptide segments, as determined by measurements of antibody titer and avidity, indicating different patterns of antibody maturation to distinct linear envelope antigenic determinants. Thus, these data demonstrate the potential for domain-specific serology to produce a high-resolution characterization of SIV-specific antibody responses that can be used to evaluate experimental vaccine responses and to identify potential immune correlates of protection.

Highly attenuated vaccine strains of simian immunodeficiency virus protect against vaginal challenge: inverse relationship of degree of protection with level of attenuation

Three different deletion mutants of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that vary in their levels of attenuation were tested for the ability to protect against mucosal challenge with pathogenic SIV. Four female rhesus monkeys were vaccinated by intravenous inoculation with SIVmac239Delta3, four with SIVmac239Delta3X, and four with SIVmac239Delta4. These three vaccine strains exhibit increasing levels of attenuation: Delta3 < Delta3X <Delta4. The vaccinated monkeys were challenged by vaginal exposure to uncloned, pathogenic SIVmac251 at 61 weeks after the time of vaccination. On the basis of viral RNA loads in plasma, cell-associated virus loads in peripheral blood, and CD4 cell counts, strong protective effects were observed in all three groups of vaccinated monkeys. However, the degree of protection correlated inversely with the level of attenuation; the least-attenuated strain, SIVmac239Delta3, gave the greatest protection. One monkey in the Delta3X group and two in the Delta4 group clearly became superinfected by the challenge virus, but these animals had levels of SIV RNA in plasma that were considerably lower than those of naive animals that were challenged in parallel. Protection against vaginal challenge appears easier to achieve than protection against intravenous challenge, since four other SIVmac239Delta4-vaccinated monkeys showed no protection when challenged intravenously with a much lower inoculum of the same challenge virus stock. Protection against vaginal challenge in the Delta4-vaccinated group occurred in the absence of detectable serum neutralizing activities and appeared to be associated with the development of an early SIV-specific cytotoxic-T-lymphocyte response. Our results demonstrate that mucosal protection can be achieved by systemic immunization with the highly attenuated SIVmac239Delta4 more than 1 year prior to the time of challenge.

Common themes of antibody maturation to simian immunodeficiency virus, simian-human immunodeficiency virus, and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infections

Characterization of virus-specific immune responses to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) is important to understanding the early virus-host interactions that may determine the course of virus infection and disease. Using a comprehensive panel of serological assays, we have previously demonstrated a complex and lengthy maturation of virus-specific antibody responses elicited by attenuated strains of SIV that was closely associated with the development of protective immunity. In the present study, we expand these analyses to address several questions regarding the nature of the virus-specific antibody responses to pathogenic SIV, SIV/HIV-1 (SHIV), and HIV-1 infections. The results demonstrate for the first time a common theme of antibody maturation to SIV, SHIV, and HIV-1 infections that is characterized by ongoing changes in antibody titer, conformational dependence, and antibody avidity during the first 6 to 10 months following virus infection. We demonstrate that this gradual evolution of virus-specific antibody responses is independent of the levels of virus replication and the pathogenicity of the infection viral strain. While the serological assays used in these studies were useful in discriminating between protective and nonprotective antibody responses during evaluation of vaccine efficacy with attenuated SIV, these same assays do not distinguish the clinical outcome of infection in pathogenic SIV, SHIV, or HIV-1 infections. These results likely reflect differences in the immune mechanisms involved in mediating protection from virus challenge compared to those that control an established viral infection, and they suggest that additional characteristics of both humoral and cellular responses evolve during this early immune maturation.

Maturation of immune responses to lentivirus infection: implications for AIDS vaccine development

The evaluation of attenuated vaccines in the simian immunodeficiency virus and equine infectious anemia virus animal models has demonstrated the ability of this immunization strategy to elicit broad and enduring immune protection from virus exposure. The development of protective immunity by these attenuated virus vaccines, however, has been shown to be time dependent and to be associated with a complex and lengthy maturation of immune responses over the first 6 to 8 months postinoculation. During this time period, envelope-specific antibody responses undergo an evolution in quantitative and qualitative properties that is similar, but distinct for each lentivirus system. The completed maturation of immune responses is then characterized by relatively steady-state antibody responses that are maintained indefinitely. The accomplishment of optimum vaccine protection is associated with achievement of a fully mature immune response, whereas nonprotective or enhancing vaccine immunity appears to be associated with immature immune responses elicited by ineffective vaccines. These observations indicate that the development of an effective acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) vaccine will require immunization strategies that can achieve the necessary maturation of immune responses to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) antigens in the minimum amount of time. Therefore, AIDS vaccine strategies based on attenuated live virus vaccines or on DNA immunization procedures, perhaps in conjunction with cytokine or secondary costimulatory molecules to accelerate immune maturation, may be best suited to accomplish the goal of an effective and practical AIDS vaccine for worldwide use.

Production and characterization of SIV envelope-specific rhesus monoclonal antibodies from a macaque asymptomatically infected with a live SIV vaccine

Five rhesus monoclonal antibodies (RhMAbs) were produced by rhesus EBV transformation of peripheral blood B cells from a rhesus macaque that had been asymptomatically infected with an attenuated, macrophage-tropic SIV strain, 17E-Cl. These MAbs recognized conformation-dependent epitopes on SIV gp120 and could not be mapped using synthetic peptides. All five RhMAbs were able to neutralize the vaccine strain and a heterologous isolate, SIV/DeltaB670. The RhMAbs did not cross-react with HIV-2; by contrast, four human MAbs derived from an HIV-2-infected person were broadly cross-reactive with both SIV and HIV-2 gp120s. Cross-competition analysis indicated that the five RhMAbs could be placed in two groups recognizing two nonoverlapping epitopes; while the HMAbs were placed in two additional competition groups. Binding of the three group I RhMAbs (1.7F, 3.11B, and 1.10A) as well as HMAb 17A was shown to be sensitive to specific amino acid alterations in V4 occurring in natural env variants. The results of this study demonstrate that RhEBV transformation provides a means to probe rhesus antibody responses to SIV infection at the monoclonal level. RhMAbs will allow structural and functional studies of envelope glycoprotein determinants that elicit protective immune responses against SIV.

Passive immunization of newborn rhesus macaques prevents oral simian immunodeficiency virus infection

To determine if passively acquired antiviral antibodies modulate virus transmission and disease progression in human pediatric AIDS, the potential of pre- and postexposure passive immunization with hyperimmune serum to prevent oral simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection or disease progression in newborn rhesus macaques was tested. Untreated neonates became infected after oral SIV inoculation and had high viremia, and most animals developed fatal AIDS within 3 months. In contrast, SIV hyperimmune serum given subcutaneously prior to oral SIV inoculation protected 6 newborns against infection. When this SIV hyperimmune serum was given to 3 newborns 3 weeks after oral SIV inoculation, viremia was not reduced, and all 3 infants died within 3 months of age due to AIDS and immune-complex disease. These results suggest that passively acquired antihuman immunodeficiency virus (HIV) IgG may decrease perinatal HIV transmission. However, anti-HIV IgG may not impart therapeutic benefit to infants with established HIV infection.

Gene gun-based nucleic acid immunization alone or in combination with recombinant vaccinia vectors suppresses virus burden in rhesus macaques challenged with a heterologous SIV

Gene gun-based DNA immunization alone or in combination with recombinant vaccinia vectors was evaluated for the ability to elicit protective immune responses in rhesus macaques challenged with a pathogenic, heterologous simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). Six monkeys primed with seven consecutive doses of DNA encoding SIVmac239 gp120 and gp160 (DNA + DNA) were divided into two groups. Three of these animals received another DNA booster immunization and the remaining three received a booster immunization containing a homologous, live recombinant vaccinia virus expressing SIVmac251 gp160 (DNA + VAC). In addition, a group of 15 animals primed with recombinant vaccinia vectors were divided into two groups. One group of six monkeys received another immunization of vaccinia (VAC + VAC) and the other nine animals received a DNA (mac239) booster immunization (VAC + DNA). Geometric mean end-point IgG titres in the DNA + VAC and VAC + DNA groups were substantially higher than the responses seen in the VAC + VAC and DNA + DNA groups, demonstrating a synergistic relationship between DNA-based vaccines and recombinant vaccinia virus-based vaccines. All vaccinates and five naive controls were challenged 19 weeks after the final booster immunization with 10 animal infectious doses of SIVDelta/B670. The vaccines did not prevent infection. However, all vaccine groups showed significant virus load reductions from seven to 56 days post challenge when compared to controls. Although the DNA + DNA group developed the lowest prechallenge antibody responses, the most significant reduction (200-fold) in virus load was associated with this group. In addition, a significant delay in CD4+ T cell loss relative to controls was observed in the DNA + DNA group. These results demonstrate that a gene gun-based DNA vaccine provided some attenuation of infection and CD4+ T cell loss after a heterologous challenge.

Evolution of envelope-specific antibody responses in monkeys experimentally infected or immunized with simian immunodeficiency virus and its association with the development of protective immunity

Previous studies of attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) vaccines in rhesus macaques have demonstrated the development of broad protection against experimental challenge, indicating the potential for the production of highly effective immune responses to SIV antigens. However, the development of this protective immune status was found to be critically dependent on the length of time postvaccination with the attenuated virus strain, suggesting a necessary maturation of immune responses. In this study, the evolution of SIV envelope-specific antibodies in monkeys experimentally infected with various attenuated strains of SIV was characterized by using a comprehensive panel of serological assays to assess the progression of antibodies in longitudinal serum samples that indicate the development of protective immunity. In parallel studies, we also used the same panel of antibody assays to characterize the properties of SIV envelope-specific antibodies elicited by inactivated whole-virus and envelope subunit vaccines previously reported to be ineffective in producing protective immunity. The results of these studies demonstrate that the evolution of protective immunity in monkeys inoculated with attenuated strains of SIV is associated with a complex and lengthy maturation of antibody responses over the first 6 to 8 months postinoculation, as reflected in progressive changes in antibody conformational dependence and avidity properties. The establishment of long-term protective immunity at this time in general parallels the absence of further detectable changes in antibody responses and a maintenance of relatively constant antibody titer, avidity, conformational dependence, and the presence of neutralizing antibody for at least 2 years postinoculation. In contrast to the mature antibody responses elicited by the attenuated SIV vaccines, the whole-virus and envelope subunit vaccines in general elicited only immature antibody responses characterized by poor reactivity with native envelope proteins, low avidity, low conformational dependence, and the absence of neutralization activity against the challenge strain. Thus, these studies establish for the first time an association between the effectiveness of experimental vaccines and the capacity of the vaccine to produce a mature antibody response to SIV envelope proteins and further indicate that a combination of several antibody parameters (including titer, avidity, conformational dependence, and virus neutralization) are superior to any single antibody parameter as prognostic indicators to evaluate candidate AIDS vaccines.

A model for the maturation of protective antibody responses to SIV envelope proteins in experimentally immunized monkeys

Studies using live attenuated virus vaccines in the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) rhesus macaque model have demonstrated broad protection against experimental challenge. Protection in these studies was found to be critically dependent on the length of time postvaccination, suggesting that protective immunity involves a necessary maturation of immune responses. The current study characterizes the evolution of protective envelope-specific antibody responses from monkeys inoculated with the highly attenuated SIV/17E-Cl virus vaccine. For comparison, the same antibody assays were used to characterize the properties of SIV envelope-specific antibodies elicited by inactivated whole virus and envelope subunit vaccines that failed to provide protection from experimental virus challenge. Results of these studies identify a continuous and complex maturation of envelope-specific antibody responses during the first six to eight months postinfection. Furthermore, the time required for maturation of SIV envelope-specific antibodies parallels the time required for the development of protective immunity against experimental challenge with heterologous strains of SIV. While no single immune correlate of protection has been identified, we suggest that a combination of antibody parameters may serve as prognostic indicators in the development of candidate AIDS vaccines.

Early efferent innervation of the developing rat cochlea studied with a carbocyanine dye

The olivocochlear pathway in the developing rat was visualized in fixed material. The fluorescent carbocyanine dye 1,1'-Dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (DiI) was applied to the cut central axons of the olivocochlear neurones at the floor of the fourth ventricle, and the termination pattern within the cochlea was examined after dye diffusion. From the day of birth (P0) to postnatal day 2 (P2), efferent innervation of the cochlea was exclusively in the region of the inner hair cells. Between P2 and P11, progressive outgrowth of neuronal processes to the outer hair cell region occurred; possible connections with the outer hair cells were occasionally seen at P4 and approached the mature pattern by P6. The efferent innervation of the organ of Corti appeared to mature progressively from the cochlear base to the apex, with outgrowth to the outer hair cells occurring earlier in the basal turn of the cochlea than in the second and third cochlear turns. Numerous blind axonal endings were observed in the spiral lamina especially at early postnatal ages. These findings may be consistent with a sequential pattern of arrival of efferent axons at the organ of Corti and ongoing death of efferent neurones in the brainstem during this period of development.

A double-label study of efferent projections to the cochlea of the chicken, Gallus domesticus

Intracochlear bilateral injection of the fluorescent retrograde markers fast blue and diamidino yellow was used to identify the brainstem location of the olivocochlear efferents in the domestic chicken. The overall distribution pattern of neurones was similar to that of recent studies using horseradish peroxidase as the retrograde tracer, although the number of labelled neurones was significantly greater than previously reported. The average number of labelled neurones projecting to any one cochlea was 242, with roughly equal numbers located ipsilaterally or contralaterally. After bilateral injection of the two tracers, no double-labelled neurones were detected.

Direct visualization of death of neurones projecting to specific targets in the developing rat brain

The fluorescent dye diamidino yellow was injected into parts of the developing visual and auditory systems in the rat. The dye was retrogradely transported by projecting neurones and was found to stain pyknotic profiles within the labelled cell populations. It is thus possible to visualize directly the death of neurones which project axons to specific and identified target regions within the nervous system.

Postnatal development of the efferent innervation of the rat cochlea

The postnatal development of the efferent innervation of the rat cochlea was studied by intracochlear injection of the fluorescent retrograde neuronal traces Diamidino yellow and Fast blue. Injections were performed on adult rats and on neonatal rats ranging from 0 to 8 postnatal days. It was found that the total number of neurones labelled in the brainstem after intracochlear injection was not significantly different in the newborn rat, compared to the adult. On the basis of cell body location and laterality of projections, there was a clear separation into lateral and medial efferent systems at the earliest postnatal age studied (PO). Evidence was also found in the newborn for a tonotopicity in the lateral system projection similar to that in the adult. Differences between the newborn and adult were a slight but significantly greater number of bilaterally-projecting cells in the newborn, and the presence in the newborn of a small number of cells located in the lateral superior olivary nucleus contralateral to their target cochlea. These were extremely rare in the adult brainstem. Evidence was found for the occurrence of postnatal neuronal death in nuclei of origin of both efferent systems. It is suggested that although the overall extent and general organization of the efferent projection to the cochlea in the rat appears to be established at birth, regressive changes are occurring during the postnatal shaping and maturation of this brainstem-to-cochlea pathway.

Descending projections from auditory brainstem nuclei to the cochlea and cochlear nucleus of the guinea pig

Projections from auditory brainstem nuclei to the cochlea and cochlear nuclei in the guinea pig were studied by injection of two retrograde fluorescent neuronal tracers. For seven experiments fast blue was injected into the scala tympani of one cochlea and diamidino yellow was injected into dorsal or anteroventral cochlear nucleus of the same side. The results show that the efferent projections to the cochlea and cochlear nucleus generally form two separate neuronal systems even though they share many common nuclei of origin. The largest projections to the cochlear nucleus come bilaterally from the lateral and ventral nuclei of the trapezoid body. Other nuclei, the lateral superior olive, the ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus, the dorsomedial periolivary nuclei, and the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body showed an ipsilateral bias in their projections to the cochlear nucleus. An upper limit of 3.5% of the medial system olivocochlear efferent neurones projecting to the cochlea were labelled with both diamidino yellow and fast blue, suggesting that few efferent neurones projecting to the cochlea send collaterals to the cochlear nucleus in this species. However, the site of medial system olivocochlear efferent collateral terminations is the granule cell area for the cat, mouse, and gerbil. When diamidino yellow was injected in the superficial layers of the cochlear nucleus, including the superficial granule cell layer of the ventral cochlear nucleus, approximately 3.6% of medial system olivocochlear efferents projecting to the cochlea sent collaterals to the cochlear nucleus. In three animals fast blue was injected into the cochlear nucleus and diamidino yellow into the cochlea. These experiments revealed a greater proportion of the medial system olivocochlear efferents projecting to the cochlea sending collaterals to the cochlear nucleus, but this proportion was still less than 10%. These results were confirmed by the extracellular injection of horseradish peroxidase into the intraganglionic spiral bundle. Only three medial system olivocochlear efferents were observed to send collaterals to the cochlear nucleus. This number was less than 10% of all labelled medial system fibres. Although these experiments suggest that in the guinea pig the number of olivocochlear efferents sending collaterals to the cochlear nucleus is considerably smaller than is found for the cat, mouse, and gerbil, it is not possible with the current experimental procedures to conclude whether the results are due to species or methodological differences.

Effect of spider venom on cochlear nerve activity consistent with glutamatergic transmission at hair cell-afferent dendrite synapse

Venom from the spider Argiope trifasciata, a highly specific blocker of the ionic channels associated with invertebrate glutamatergic receptors, was perfused through scala tympani of the basal turn of the pig cochlea. Its effect on spontaneous and driven activity of single afferent neurons was studied. 0.1 U/ml spider venom altered the maximum driven activity without an effect on spontaneous activity. 1 U/ml spider venom suppressed both spontaneous and driven activity. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that L-glutamate is the neurotransmitter of the synapse between inner hair cells and primary auditory afferent neurons. The results also suggest that the differences in spontaneous activity between neurons may originate in variations in neurotransmitter release.

Release of chemicals by prostaglandin-treated female fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas, that stimulate male courtship

Intramuscular injection of PGF2 alpha tromethamine salt (Sigma) did not induce sexual behavior in female fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas, when in the presence of male conspecific. However, coresident males exhibited an increased frequency of courtship behavior, consisting of approach and leading, to females following PGF2 alpha treatment. When presented with both saline-injected and PGF2 alpha-injected females, males showed increased courtship only to PGF2 alpha-treated females. Isolated males also showed increased leading behavior following the introduction of water exposed to PGF2 alpha-treated females, but not with water exposed to PGF2 alpha-treated males, untreated females or males, or PGF2 alpha alone. Hence, PGF2 alpha appears to induce the release of a female-specific chemical in P. promelas that triggers courting behavior in conspecific males.

Brainstem organization of efferent projections to the guinea pig cochlea studied using the fluorescent tracers fast blue and diamidino yellow

Intracochlear injection of the fluorescent retrograde neuronal tracers fast blue and diamidino yellow was used to investigate the distribution within the brainstem of neurones projecting to the cochlea in the guinea pig. The overall pattern of distribution of cells within the brainstem auditory nuclei was the same for both tracers and was also in broad agreement with recent studies in this species using horseradish peroxidase as the neuronal tracer. However, the total number of neurones found (mean of 1234 projecting to each cochlea) was significantly greater than that reported using horseradish peroxidase, largely as a result of more small labelled neurones being detected within the lateral superior olivary nucleus ipsilateral to the injected cochlea. The yield of labelled cells was greatest in animals in which care was taken to perfuse the whole length of the cochlear epithelium. After bilateral injections of both tracers, double-labelled cells were found in small numbers within all the large neurone medial system nuclei and the ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus. It was concluded that between 1-5% of the medial system neurones project to both cochleas.

Quantitative estimate of bilaterally projecting medial olivocochlear neurones in the guinea pig brainstem

Bilateral intracochlear injections of the fluorescent retrograde neuronal tracers fast blue and diamidino yellow were used to identify efferent neurones in the guinea pig brainstem which project to the inner ear on both sides. Bilaterally projecting neurones, detected by their double-labelled appearance in fluorescence microscopy, were found in all the nuclei of origin of the large neurone extra-LSO system of olivocochlear neurones. No double-labelled neurones were found in the small neurone LSO system. When precautions were taken to maximize their capture, these bilaterally projecting neurones comprised 5.4% of the total extra-LSO system neurones projecting to any one cochlea. On the basis of these quantitative data, it was suggested that the bilaterally projecting neurones may correspond to the small group of binaurally activated cochlear efferents identified in physiological studies.

Segregation of efferent projections to different turns of the guinea pig cochlea

Localized intracochlear injections of the fluorescent retrograde label diamidino yellow were used to investigate the organization of efferent projections from the brainstem to different turns of the cochlea, in the guinea pig. It was found that the location of small neurones within the lateral superior olive ipsilateral to the injection varied in a systematic manner when injections proceeded from base to apex of the cochlea. In addition, a cruder form of cochleotopic organization was present in that most of the large medial system efferent neurones were labelled only after injection into the 3 most basal turns of the cochlea. The decline of medial system efferent innervation proceeding from base to apex was most striking for the contralateral efferent neurones. The details of base to apex innervation density were different for the different nuclei of origin of the medial system, implying the existence of complex subsystems within the medial neurone population.

Prostaglandin induction of spawning behavior in Cichlasoma bimaculatum (Pisces cichlidae)

Prostaglandin (PG) stimulates female spawning behavior in goldfish and in some other teleosts in which female reproductive behaviors consist of postovulatory oviposition acts. This study examined the effects of PG on female sexual behavior in a teleost fish, Cichlasoma bimaculatum, in which female reproductive behaviors involve both preovulatory courtship and substrate cleaning behaviors, and post-ovulatory oviposition behavior. In females of established pairs, PGF2 alpha injection (5 micrograms, im) at any stage of the spawning cycle, or in the parental phase, rapidly induced substrate cleaning which soon merged into oviposition behavior (without egg release). These results support a role for PG in oviposition behavior of Cichlasoma. However, indomethacin (1 mg, ip), a PG synthesis inhibitor, did not block oviposition in ovulated females which had begun to spawn. Indomethacin may not have lowered PG levels sufficiently. Alternatively, as shown by J.J. Polder (1971, Neth. J. Zool. 21, 265), oviposition behavior may be induced or maintained by other factors associated with the spawning situation.

Digital operations can be deceptive. Squid giant axon membrane

Action potentials produced by current clamp stimuli have been used to voltage-clam axons, an analogue, and computers. The final currents reproduced the original stimulus except during the action potential, when fluctuations of greater than +/- 20% were found. But all of these operations were digitalized. When the original action potential from an analogue was recorded directly on magnetic tape and played back as the voltage clamp, the original stimulus was reproduced within experimental error. Five collaborators and I have shown that the digital transients can accumulate to surprising values.

Analogue solution for electrical capacity of membrane-covered cubes in cubic array at high concentration

Earlier measurements have shown that the equations derived for the resistance of suspension of spheres apply up to a volume concentration of 100% for close-packing forms. They have also shown, by a resistance-capacitance analogue, that they apply for the capacity of a close-packing of membrane-covered square cylinders in square array, approximating muscle and nerve. The present work is an extension of the two-dimensional to a three-dimensional array of membrane-covered cubes in a cubic array. It is found by measurements of a three-dimensional electrolytic analogue that the capacitance is indeed expressed by an extension of the analytic solution at low concentrations up to 100% volume concentration of the membrane-covered form, such as epithelial tissues. There is thus at least one example each of two-and three-dimensional forms which conform to the low concentration analysis up to 100% volume and so give a basis for the extensions to other and more complicated forms to complete a survey to work begun by Fricke in 1923.

Electrical properties of the squid axon sheath

The first impedance data on the squid giant axon gave a lossy membrane capacity of 1 muF/cm2 from 1-200 kHz. The remaining observations of one experiment up to 5 MHz were not included in the simple conclusions and have now been ascribed to the mostly Schwann cell sheath. The results of these fragmentary data, 1.6 omega-cm2 and 12.5 membrane layers, are within the range of recent current clamp and electron microscope conclusions to give them independent confirmation and support.