A novel and greener sequential column leaching approach for the treatment of two different Greek laterites

Τhe present study investigates, from an environmental protection viewpoint, the efficiency of sequential column leaching of two different Greek laterites, i.e. a limonitic ore from central and a saprolitic ore from northern Greece. First, the most refractory limonitic laterite is leached in the first column for 15 days and the obtained pregnant leach solution (PLS) is further used for the leaching of the easier to treat saprolitic ore in the second column, thus achieving a significantly reduced acid consumption. The main parameters affecting the process efficiency, i.e. acid molarity (1.5 or 3 mol/L H2SO4) and addition of sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) in the leaching solution were studied. The extraction of Ni, Co, Fe, Al, Mg, Mn and Ca was determined by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS), while the characterization of the ores and final residues was carried out by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA/DTA), and Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) analysis. The results confirm the efficiency of the proposed green approach, which with the use of leaching solution containing 1.5 mol/L H2SO4 and 20 g/L Na2SO3 resulted in 73.8 % Ni, 71.6 % Co and 8.4 % Fe extraction after a short period of time (33 days), while the acid consumption, which is a serious environmental concern, was very low and did not exceed 300 kg/t ore. Overall, the proposed process not only improves the efficiency of leaching of different types of laterites for the recovery of both Ni and Co but also reduces the environmental impacts due to the significantly lower acid consumption.

Column leaching of low-grade saprolitic laterites and valorization of leaching residues

Socio-economic data on nickel and cobalt show their importance throughout the entire metal value chain, from mining to end use, disposal and recycling. Thus, the extraction of both metals from primary and secondary raw materials as well as from wastes is currently considered strategically important for the industry and the society. In this paper heap leaching of Greek low-grade saprolitic laterites, with Ni content 0.97%, was investigated. The main parameters studied involved the strength of the H₂SO₄ solution used (49 and 147gL^-1) and the effect of adding sodium sulfite (Na₂SO₃) in the leaching medium. The pregnant leach solution (PLS) was recycled several times during leaching in order to minimize acid consumption. The experimental results showed that within a period of 25days, and under the optimum conditions (147gL^-1 H₂SO₄ and 20gL^-1 Na₂SO₃), i) Ni and Co extractions were 72.5% and 47.4%, respectively and ii) Fe and Al co-extractions were 8.7% and 31.3%, respectively. Furthermore, valorization of the leaching residues through alkali activation using NaOH and Na₂SiO₃ and the addition of metakaolin (MK) for the production of inorganic polymers (IPs) was explored. X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC/TG) and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) were used to characterize the ore, its leaching residues and the IPs. The IPs produced demonstrated high compressive strength, almost 40MPa and are suitable for a wide range of applications in the construction sector.

Life cycle analysis of pistachio production in Greece

In the present paper, a life cycle assessment (LCA) study regarding pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) cultivation in Aegina island, Greece, was performed to evaluate the energy use footprint and the associated environmental impacts. In this context, a detailed life cycle inventory was created based on site-survey data and used for a holistic cradle-to-farm gate LCA analysis using the GaBi 6.5 software. The main impact categories assessed were acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), global warming potential (GWP), ozone depletion potential (ODP), photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP) and cumulative energy demand (CED). In order to reveal the main environmental concerns pertinent to pistachio production and in turn propose measures for the reduction of environmental and energetic impacts, three scenarios were compared, namely the Baseline scenario (BS) that involves current cultivation practices, the Green Energy (GE) scenario that involves the use of biological fertilizers i.e. compost, and the Waste Utilization (WU) scenario that involves the production of biochar from pistachio and other agricultural wastes and its subsequent soil application to promote carbon sequestration and improve soil quality. Based on the results of this study, the use of compost for fertilization (GE scenario), which results in approximately 9% savings in terms of energy consumption and the five environmental impact categories studied compared to BS scenario, is considered a promising alternative cultivation strategy. Slightly higher savings (10% on average) in terms of the five calculated environmental impact categories, compared to the BS scenario, were indicated when the WU scenario was considered. Regarding energy consumption, the WU scenario results in minor increase, 3%, compared to the BS scenario. Results of uncertainty analysis performed using the Monte Carlo technique and contribution analysis showed that GE and WU scenarios offer reliable and significant eco-profile improvements for pistachio production in the study area compared to the current situation.

Assessment of biochar as feedstock in a direct carbon solid oxide fuel cell

The feasibility of directly converting biochar to electricity in a novel Direct Biomass Fuel Cell (DBFC) was investigated. Three different types of biochars, i.e., pistachio shells (PI), pecan shells (PE) and sawdust (SD) were employed as feedstock.

Arsenic removal in a sulfidogenic fixed-bed column bioreactor

In the present study, the bioremoval of arsenic from synthetic acidic wastewater containing arsenate (As(5+)) (0.5-20mg/L), ferrous iron (Fe(2+)) (100-200mg/L) and sulfate (2,000 mg/L) was investigated in an ethanol fed (780-1,560 mg/L chemical oxygen demand (COD)) anaerobic up-flow fixed bed column bioreactor at constant hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 9.6h. Arsenic removal efficiency was low and averaged 8% in case iron was not supplemented to the synthetic wastewater. Neutral to slightly alkaline pH and high sulfide concentration in the bioreactor retarded the precipitation of arsenic. Addition of 100mg/L Fe(2+) increased arsenic removal efficiency to 63%. Further increase of influent Fe(2+) concentration to 200mg/L improved arsenic removal to 85%. Decrease of influent COD concentration to its half, 780 mg/L, resulted in further increase of As removal to 96% when Fe(2+) and As(5+) concentrations remained at 200mg/L and 20mg/L, respectively. As a result of the sulfidogenic activity in the bioreactor the effluent pH and alkalinity concentration averaged 7.4 ± 0.2 and 1,736 ± 239 mg CaCO3/L respectively. Electron flow from ethanol to sulfate averaged 72 ± 10%. X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analyses were carried out to identify the nature of the precipitate generated by sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) activity. Precipitation of arsenic in the form of As2S3 (orpiment) and co-precipitation with ferrous sulfide (FeS), pyrite (FeS2) or arsenopyrite (FeAsS) were the main arsenic removal mechanisms.

Hexavalent chromium reduction in a sulfur reducing packed-bed bioreactor

The most commonly used approach for the detoxification of hazardous industrial effluents and wastewaters containing Cr(VI) is its reduction to the much less toxic and immobile form of Cr(III). This study investigates the cleanup of Cr(VI) containing wastewaters using elemental sulfur as electron acceptor, for the production of hydrogen sulfide that induces Cr(VI) reduction. An elemental sulfur reducing packed-bed bioreactor was operated at 28-30°C for more than 250 days under varying influent Cr(VI) concentrations (5.0-50.0 mg/L) and hydraulic retention times (HRTs, 0.36-1.0 day). Ethanol or acetate (1000 mg/L COD) was used as carbon source and electron donor. The degree of COD oxidation varied between 30% and 85%, depending on the operating conditions and the type of organic carbon source. The oxidation of organic matter was coupled with the production of hydrogen sulfide, which reached a maximum concentration of 750 mg/L. The biologically produced hydrogen sulfide reduced Cr(VI) chemically to Cr(III) that precipitated in the reactor. Reduction of Cr(VI) and removal efficiency of total chromium always exceeded 97% and 85%, respectively, implying that the reduced chromium was retained in the bioreactor. This study showed that sulfur can be used as an electron acceptor to produce hydrogen sulfide that induces efficient reduction and immobilization of Cr(VI), thus enabling decontamination of Cr(VI) polluted wastewaters.

Solid phase studies and geochemical modelling of low-cost permeable reactive barriers

A continuous column experiment was carried out under dynamic flow conditions in order to study the efficiency of low-cost permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) to remove several inorganic contaminants from acidic solutions. A 50:50 w/w waste iron/sand mixture was used as candidate reactive media in order to activate precipitation and promote sorption and reduction-oxidation mechanisms. Solid phase studies of the exhausted reactive products after column shutdown, using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), confirmed that the principal Fe corrosion products identified in the reactive zone are amorphous iron (hydr)oxides (maghemite/magnetite and goethite), intermediate products (sulfate green rust), and amorphous metal sulfides such as amFeS and/or mackinawite. Geochemical modelling of the metal removal processes, including interactions between reactive media, heavy metal ions and sulfates, and interpretation of the ionic profiles was also carried out by using the speciation/mass transfer computer code PHREEQC-2 and the WATEQ4F database. Mineralogical characterization studies as well as geochemical modelling calculations also indicate that the effect of sulfate and silica sand on the efficiency of the reactive zone should be considered carefully during design and operation of low-cost field PRBs.

Disposal of olive oil mill wastes in evaporation ponds: effects on soil properties

The most common practice followed in the Med countries for the management of olive oil mill wastes (OMW) involves disposal in evaporation ponds or direct disposal on soil. So far there is lack of reliable information regarding the long-term effects of OMW application on soils. This study assesses the effects of OMW disposal in evaporation ponds on underlying soil properties in the wider disposal site as well as the impacts of untreated OMW application on agricultural soils. In case of active disposal sites, the carbonate content in most soils was decreased, whereas soil EC, as well as Cl(-), SO(4)(2-), PO(4)(3-), NH(4)(+) and particularly K(+) concentrations were substantially increased. Soil pH was only marginally affected. Phenol, total N, available P and PO(4)(3-) concentrations were considerably higher in the upper soil layers in areas adjacent to the ponds. Available B as well as DTPA extractable Cu, Mn, Zn and Fe increased substantially. Most surface soil parameters exhibited increased values at the inactive site 6 years after mill closure and cease of OMW disposal activities but differences were diminished in deeper layers. It is therefore concluded that long-term uncontrolled disposal of raw OMW on soils may affect soil properties and subsequently enhance the risk for groundwater contamination.

Geostatistical risk estimation at waste disposal sites in the presence of hot spots

The present paper aims to estimate risk by using geostatistics at the wider coal mining/waste disposal site of Belkovskaya, Tula region, in Russia. In this area the presence of hot spots causes a spatial trend in the mean value of the random field and a non-Gaussian data distribution. Prior to application of geostatistics, subtraction of trend and appropriate smoothing and transformation of the data into a Gaussian form were carried out; risk maps were then generated for the wider study area in order to assess the probability of exceeding risk thresholds. Finally, the present paper discusses the need for homogenization of soil risk thresholds regarding hazardous elements that will enhance reliability of risk estimation and enable application of appropriate rehabilitation actions in contaminated areas.

Effect of synthesis parameters on the compressive strength of low-calcium ferronickel slag inorganic polymers

The wide range of physical and chemical properties of inorganic polymers, also known as geopolymers, commonly formed by alkali activation of aluminosilicates, makes these materials useful for a variety of applications. In the present experimental study inorganic polymers are synthesised from low-Ca electric arc ferronickel slag. The effect of experimental conditions on the compressive strength of the final products is assessed. A number of techniques, namely XRD, FTIR and TG-DTG were used to identify new phases and subsequently elucidate to some degree the mechanisms involved. Finally, the paper discusses briefly the potential of inorganic polymer technology as a feasible option for the utilisation of certain potentially hazardous mining and metallurgical wastes towards an increased sustainability of the wider minerals sector.

Dimensionality of heavy metal distribution in waste disposal sites using nonlinear dynamics

Mapping of heavy metal contamination in mining and waste disposal sites usually relies on geostatistical approaches and linear stochastic dynamics. The present paper aims to identify, using the Grassberger-Procaccia correlation dimension (CD) algorithm, the existence of a nonlinear deterministic and chaotic dynamic behaviour in the spatial pattern of arsenic, manganese and zinc concentration in a Russian coal waste disposal site. The analysis carried out yielded embedding dimension values ranging between 7 and 8 suggesting thus from a chaotic dynamic perspective that arsenic, manganese and zinc concentration in space is a medium dimensional problem for the regionalized scale considered in this study. This alternative nonlinear dynamics approach may complement conventional geostatistical studies and may be also used for the estimation of risk and the subsequent screening and selection of a feasible remediation scheme in wider mining and waste disposal sites. Finally, the synergistic effect of this study may be further elaborated if additional factors including among others presence of hot spots, density and depth of sampling, mineralogy of wastes and sensitivity of analytical techniques are taken into account.

Soil risk assessment of As and Zn contamination in a coal mining region using geostatistics [corrected]

The present paper aims to map As and Zn contamination and assess the risk for agricultural soils in a wider disposal site containing wastes derived from coal beneficiation. Geochemical data related to environmental studies show that the waste characteristics favor solubilisation and mobilization of inorganic contaminants and in some cases the generation of acidic leachates. 135 soil samples were collected from a 34 km(2) area and analysed by using geostatistics under the maximum entropy principle in order to produce risk assessment maps and estimate the probability of soil contamination. In addition, the present paper discusses the main issues related to risk assessment in wider mining and waste disposal sites in order to assist decision makers in selecting feasible rehabilitation schemes.

Artificial inoculation-perspectives in tailings phytostabilization

Intensive mining and processing activities worldwide resulted in the generation of huge amounts of waste (tailings), generally characterized as toxic, radioactive, and/or hazardous. The exposure potential and, hence, the risk posed by such wastes is enhanced by a general lack of vegetation. Phytostabilization has proven to be efficient in reducing this risk. However, establishing vegetation on tailing dumps may be expensive due to the intensive use of amendments and chemical fertilizers. In this article, investigations on artificial inoculation of mine tailings with bacterial strains as a means to improve the development of vegetative covers and reduce application cost by eliminating chemical fertilization are presented and discussed. The development of plants and microbial communities from tailings, as well as the impact of inoculation on metal uptake in plants, were studied. Experiments were carried out in greenhouse using two types of mine tailings (phosphogypsum and sulphidic tailings) from the Romanian Black Sea coast. Indigenous herbaceous plants were cultivated on tailings with the addition of chemical fertilizers versus bacterial inoculation. After a 6-month experimental period, excellent plant growth, which is associated with a rich microbial community, was observed in all inoculated treatments, in contrast with poor plant growth and microbiota from the chemical fertilization treatments alone. Additionally, artificial inoculation improved plant resistance to heavy metals by reducing the uptake of some toxic metals. Once a rich microbial community is established, inoculation may be discontinued. Based on these results, efficient and cost-effective phytostabilization schemes can be proposed.