Impact of Simulated Rotating Shift Work on Mammary Tumor Development in the p53R270H©/+WAPCre Mouse Model for Breast Cancer

Epidemiological studies associate night shift work with increased breast cancer risk. However, the underlying mechanisms are not clearly understood. To better understand these mechanisms, animal models that mimic the human situation of different aspects of shift work are needed. In this study, we used "timed sleep restriction" (TSR) cages to simulate clockwise and counterclockwise rotating shift work schedules and investigated predicted sleep patterns and mammary tumor development in breast tumor-prone female p53R270H©/+WAPCre mice. We show that TSR cages are effective in disturbing normal activity and estimated sleep patterns. Although circadian rhythms were not shifted, we observed effects of the rotating schedules on sleep timing and sleep duration. Sleep loss during a simulated shift was partly compensated after the shift and also partly during the free days. No effects were observed on body weight gain and latency time of breast cancer development. In summary, our study shows that the TSR cages can be used to model shift work in mice and affect patterns of activity and sleep. The effect of disturbing sleep patterns on carcinogenesis needs to be further investigated.

Effects of Nightshift Work on Blood Metabolites in Female Nurses and Paramedic Staff: A Cross-sectional Study

Nightshift work disturbs the circadian rhythm, which might contribute to the development of cardio-metabolic disorders. In this cross-sectional study, we aimed to gain insight into perturbations of disease relevant metabolic pathways due to nightshift work. We characterized the metabolic profiles of 237 female nurses and paramedic staff participating in the Klokwerk study using the Nightingale Health platform. We performed analyses on plasma levels of 225 metabolites, including cholesterol, triglycerides, fatty acids, and amino acids. Using both principal component- and univariate-regression, we compared metabolic profiles of nightshift workers to metabolic profiles from workers that did not work night shifts (defined as day workers). We also assessed whether differential effects were observed between recently started versus more experienced workers. Within the group of nightshift workers, we compared metabolic profiles measured right after a nightshift with metabolic profiles measured on a day when no nightshift work was conducted. We observed evidence for an impact of nightshift work on the presence of unfavorable fatty acid profiles in blood. Amongst the fatty acids, effects were most prominent for PUFA/FA ratios (consistently decreased) and SFA/FA ratios (consistently elevated). This pattern of less favorable fatty acid profiles was also observed in samples collected directly after a night shift. Amino acid levels (histidine, glutamine, isoleucine, and leucine) and lipoproteins (especially HDL-cholesterol, VLDL-cholesterol, and triglycerides) were elevated when comparing nightshift workers with day workers. Amino acid levels were decreased in the samples that were collected directly after working a nightshift (compared to levels in samples that were collected during a non-nightshift period). The observed effects were generally more pronounced in samples collected directly after the nightshift and among recently started compared to more experienced nightshift workers. Our finding of a suggested impact of shift work on impaired lipid metabolism is in line with evidence that links disruption of circadian rhythmicity to obesity and metabolic disorders.

Time-restricted feeding attenuates hypercholesterolaemia and atherosclerosis development during circadian disturbance in APOE∗3-Leiden.CETP mice

BACKGROUND

Circadian disturbance (CD) is the consequence of a mismatch between endogenous circadian rhythms, behaviour, and/or environmental cycles, and frequently occurs during shift work. Shift work has been associated with elevated risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (asCVD) in humans, but evidence for the effectiveness of prevention strategies is lacking.

METHODS

Here, we applied time-restricted feeding (TRF) as a strategy to counteract atherosclerosis development during CD in female APOE∗3-Leiden.CETP mice, a well-established model for humanized lipoprotein metabolism. Control groups were subjected to a fixed 12:12 h light-dark cycle, while CD groups were subjected to 6-h phase advancement every 3 days. Groups had either ad libitum (AL) access to food or were subjected to TRF with restricted food access to the dark phase.

FINDINGS

TRF did not prevent the increase in the relative abundance of circulating inflammatory monocytes and elevation of (postprandial) plasma triglycerides during CD. Nonetheless, TRF reduced atherosclerotic lesion size and prevented an elevation in macrophage content of atherosclerotic lesions during CD, while it increased the relative abundance of anti-inflammatory monocytes, prevented activation of T cells, and lowered plasma total cholesterol levels and markers of hepatic cholesterol synthesis. These effects were independent of total food intake.

INTERPRETATION

We propose that time restricted eating could be a promising strategy for the primary prevention of asCVD risk in shift workers, which warrants future study in humans.

FUNDING

This work was funded by the Novo Nordisk Foundation, the Netherlands Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, and the Dutch Heart Foundation.

GlycA, a Biomarker of Low-Grade Inflammation, Is Increased in Male Night Shift Workers

Sustained night shift work is associated with various adverse health risks, including an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, and susceptibility to infectious respiratory diseases. The extent of these adverse health effects, however, seems to greatly vary between night shift workers, yet the underlying reasons and the mechanisms underlying these interindividual differences remain poorly understood. Metabolomics assays in the blood have recently gained much attention as a minimally invasive biomarker platform capturing information predictive of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. In this cross-sectional study, we explored and compared the metabolic profiles of 1010 night shift workers and 1010 age- and sex-matched day workers (non-shift workers) from the Lifelines Cohort Study. The metabolic profiles were determined using the ¹H-NMR Nightingale platform for the quantification of 250 parameters of metabolism, including routine lipids, extensive lipoprotein subclasses, fatty acid composition, and various low-molecular metabolites, including amino acids, ketone bodies, and gluconeogenesis-related metabolites. Night shift workers had an increased BMI (26.6 vs. 25.9 kg/m²) compared with day workers (non-shift workers) in both sexes, were slightly more likely to be ever smokers (only in males) (54% vs. 46%), worked on average 5.9 ± 3.7 night shifts per month, and had been working in night shifts for 18.3 ± 10.5 years on average. We observed changes in several metabolic markers in male night shift workers compared with non-shift workers, but no changes were observed in women. In men, we observed higher levels of glycoprotein acetyls (GlycA), triglycerides, and fatty acids compared with non-shift workers. The changes were seen in the ratio of triglycerides and cholesterol(esters) to total lipids in different sizes of VLDL particles. Glycoprotein acetyls (GlycAs) are of particular interest as markers since they are known as biomarkers for low-grade chronic inflammation. When the analyses were adjusted for BMI, no significant associations were observed. Further studies are needed to better understand the relationship between night shift work and metabolic profiles, particularly with respect to the role of sex and BMI in this relationship.

A randomized crossover trial assessing time of day snack consumption and resulting postprandial glycemic response in a real-life setting among healthy adults

The postprandial glycemic response is an important metabolic health factor, which, from laboratory studies, is known to change from low to high over the course of the day, and from which negative health outcomes have been linked to nightly eating. We applied interstitial continuous glucose monitoring to examine the glycemic response to a standardized carbohydrate-rich snack (198 kcal) across the day in a real-life setting. Twenty-four healthy participants (12 men, 12 women, 27-61 y old) consumed the snack nine times during 6 d in a crossover design, altering the time of consumption between morning, afternoon and evening. The snack was consumed in the participant's own environment with a preceding fast of at least 2.5 h between their customary main meals and practices. Linear mixed models were used with fixed effect of timing, and participant as random effect, to assess incremental area under the curve, peak value and time-to-peak of the glycemic response. Overall, the highest glycemic excursions were observed in the morning, while a more dampened but prolonged response was observed in the evening. These findings do not concur with previously published laboratory studies. This implies that results obtained under controlled experimental conditions in laboratories cannot be generalized directly to predict chrononutritional effects on the glycemic response in healthy individuals and their daily routines.

Social Jetlag and Related Risks for Human Health: A Timely Review

The term social jetlag is used to describe the discrepancy between biological time, determined by our internal body clock, and social times, mainly dictated by social obligations such as school or work. In industrialized countries, two-thirds of the studying/working population experiences social jetlag, often for several years. Described for the first time in 2006, a considerable effort has been put into understanding the effects of social jetlag on human physiopathology, yet our understanding of this phenomenon is still very limited. Due to its high prevalence, social jetlag is becoming a primary concern for public health. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding social jetlag, social jetlag associated behavior (e.g., unhealthy eating patterns) and related risks for human health.

Diet, Physical Activity, and Daylight Exposure Patterns in Night-Shift Workers and Day Workers

Background

Night-shift work has been reported to have an impact on nutrition, daylight exposure, and physical activity, which might play a role in observed health effects. Because these exposures show diurnal variation, and shift work has been related with disturbances in the circadian rhythm, the timing of assessment of these factors requires careful consideration. Our aim was to describe the changes in patterns of diet, physical activity, and daylight exposure associated with night-shift work.

Methods

We conducted an observational study among female healthcare workers either regularly working night shifts or not working night shifts. We assessed physical activity and daylight exposure using continuous monitoring devices for 48 h. We logged dietary patterns (24 h) and other health- and work-associated characteristics. Two measurement sessions were conducted when participants did 'not' work night shifts, and one session was conducted during a night-shift period.

Results

Our study included 69 night-shift workers and 21 day workers. On days in which they conduct work but no night work, night-shift workers had similar physical activity and 24-h caloric intake, yet higher overall daylight exposures than day workers and were more often exposed around noon instead of mainly around 1800h. Night-shift workers were less exposed to daylight during the night-shift session compared to the non-night-shift session. Total caloric intakes did not significantly differ between sessions, but we did observe a shorter maximum fasting interval, more eating moments, and a higher percentage of fat intake during the night-shift session.

Conclusion

Observed differences in diet, physical activity, and exposure to daylight primarily manifested themselves through changes in exposure patterns, highlighting the importance of time-resolved measurements in night-shift-work research. Patterns in daylight exposure were primarily related to time of waking up and working schedule, whereas timing of dinner seemed primarily governed by social conventions.

Disruption of circadian rhythm by alternating light-dark cycles aggravates atherosclerosis development in APOE*3-Leiden.CETP mice

Disruption of circadian rhythm by means of shift work has been associated with cardiovascular disease in humans. However, causality and underlying mechanisms have not yet been established. In this study, we exposed hyperlipidemic APOE*3-Leiden.CETP mice to either regular light-dark cycles, weekly 6 hours phase advances or delays, or weekly alternating light-dark cycles (12 hours shifts), as a well-established model for shift work. We found that mice exposed to 15 weeks of alternating light-dark cycles displayed a striking increase in atherosclerosis, with an approximately twofold increase in lesion size and severity, while mice exposed to phase advances and delays showed a milder circadian disruption and no significant effect on atherosclerosis development. We observed a higher lesion macrophage content in mice exposed to alternating light-dark cycles without obvious changes in plasma lipids, suggesting involvement of the immune system. Moreover, while no changes in the number or activation status of circulating monocytes and other immune cells were observed, we identified increased markers for inflammation, oxidative stress, and chemoattraction in the vessel wall. Altogether, this is the first study to show that circadian disruption by shifting light-dark cycles directly aggravates atherosclerosis development.

Plasma sCD36 as non-circadian marker of chronic circadian disturbance in shift workers

Shift work induces chronic circadian disturbance, which might result in increased health risks, including cardio-metabolic diseases. Previously, we identified sCD36 as a potential non-circadian biomarker of chronic circadian disturbance in mice. The aim of the current study (n = 232 individuals) was to identify whether sCD36 measured in plasma can be used as a non-circadian marker of chronic circadian disturbance in humans, which would allow its use to measure the effects of interventions and monitoring in large-scale studies. We compared levels of plasma sCD36 of day workers with recent (< 2 years) and experienced (> 5 years) night-shift workers within the Klokwerk study. We detected no differences in sCD36 levels between day workers and recent or experienced night-shift workers, measured during a day or afternoon shift. In addition, sCD36 levels measured directly after a night shift were not different from sCD36 levels measured during day or afternoon shifts, indicating no acute effect of night shifts on sCD36 levels in our study. In summary, our study does not show a relation between night-shift work experience (recent or long-term) and plasma levels of sCD36. Since we do not know if and for which time span night-shift work is associated with changes in sCD36 levels, and our study was relatively small and cross-sectional, further evidence for an association between chronic circadian disruption and this candidate biomarker sCD36 should be gathered from large cohort studies.

The Relationship Between Shift Work and Metabolic Risk Factors: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies

CONTEXT

Although the metabolic health effects of shift work have been extensively studied, a systematic synthesis of the available research is lacking. This review aimed to systematically summarize the available evidence of longitudinal studies linking shift work with metabolic risk factors.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A systematic literature search was performed in 2015. Studies were included if (1) they had a longitudinal design; (2) shift work was studied as the exposure; and (3) the outcome involved a metabolic risk factor, including anthropometric, blood glucose, blood lipid, or blood pressure measures.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Eligible studies were assessed for their methodologic quality in 2015. A best-evidence synthesis was used to draw conclusions per outcome. Thirty-nine articles describing 22 studies were included. Strong evidence was found for a relation between shift work and increased body weight/BMI, risk for overweight, and impaired glucose tolerance. For the remaining outcomes, there was insufficient evidence.

CONCLUSIONS

Shift work seems to be associated with body weight gain, risk for overweight, and impaired glucose tolerance. Overall, lack of high-methodologic quality studies and inconsistency in findings led to insufficient evidence in assessing the relation between shift work and other metabolic risk factors. To strengthen the evidence, more high-quality longitudinal studies that provide more information on the shift work schedule (e.g., frequency of night shifts, duration in years) are needed. Further, research to the (mediating) role of lifestyle behaviors in the health effects of shift work is recommended, as this may offer potential for preventive strategies.

Chronically Alternating Light Cycles Increase Breast Cancer Risk in Mice

Although epidemiological studies in shift workers and flight attendants have associated chronic circadian rhythm disturbance (CRD) with increased breast cancer risk, causal evidence for this association is lacking. Several scenarios have been proposed to contribute to the shift work-cancer connection: (1) internal desynchronization, (2) light at night (resulting in melatonin suppression), (3) sleep disruption, (4) lifestyle disturbances, and (5) decreased vitamin D levels due to lack of sunlight. The confounders inherent in human field studies are less problematic in animal studies, which are therefore a good approach to assess the causal relation between circadian disturbance and cancer. However, the experimental conditions of many of these animal studies were far from the reality of human shift workers. For example, some involved xenografts (addressing tumor growth rather than cancer initiation and/or progression), chemically induced tumor models, or continuous bright light exposure, which can lead to suppression of circadian rhythmicity. Here, we have exposed breast cancer-prone p53(R270H/+)WAPCre conditional mutant mice (in a FVB genetic background) to chronic CRD by subjecting them to a weekly alternating light-dark (LD) cycle throughout their life. Animals exposed to the weekly LD inversions showed a decrease in tumor suppression. In addition, these animals showed an increase in body weight. Importantly, this study provides the first experimental proof that CRD increases breast cancer development. Finally, our data suggest internal desynchronization and sleep disturbance as mechanisms linking shift work with cancer development and obesity.

Contrasting Roles of Dopamine and Noradrenaline in the Motivational Properties of Social Play Behavior in Rats

Social play behavior, abundant in the young of most mammalian species, is thought to be important for social and cognitive development. Social play is highly rewarding, and as such, the expression of social play depends on its pleasurable and motivational properties. Since the motivational properties of social play have only sporadically been investigated, we developed a setup in which rats responded for social play under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement. Dopaminergic neurotransmission plays a key role in incentive motivational processes, and both dopamine and noradrenaline have been implicated in the modulation of social play behavior. Therefore, we investigated the role of dopamine and noradrenaline in the motivation for social play. Treatment with the psychostimulant drugs methylphenidate and cocaine increased responding for social play, but suppressed its expression during reinforced play periods. The dopamine reuptake inhibitor GBR-12909 increased responding for social play, but did not affect its expression, whereas the noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor atomoxetine decreased responding for social play as well as its expression. The effects of methylphenidate and cocaine on responding for social play, but not their play-suppressant effects, were blocked by pretreatment with the dopamine receptor antagonist α-flupenthixol. In contrast, pretreatment with the α2-adrenoceptor antagonist RX821002 prevented the play-suppressant effect of methylphenidate, but left its effect on responding for social play unaltered. In sum, the present study introduces a novel method to study the incentive motivational properties of social play behavior in rats. Using this paradigm, we demonstrate dissociable roles for dopamine and noradrenaline in social play behavior: dopamine stimulates the motivation for social play, whereas noradrenaline negatively modulates the motivation for social play behavior and its expression.

Diurnal Variation of Hormonal and Lipid Biomarkers in a Molecular Epidemiology-Like Setting

Introduction

Many molecular epidemiology studies focusing on high prevalent diseases, such as metabolic disorders and cancer, investigate metabolic and hormonal markers. In general, sampling for these markers can occur at any time-point during the day or after an overnight fast. However, environmental factors, such as light exposure and food intake might affect the levels of these markers, since they provide input for the internal time-keeping system. When diurnal variation is larger than the inter-individual variation, time of day should be taken into account. Importantly, heterogeneity in diurnal variation and disturbance of circadian rhythms among a study population might increasingly occur as a result of our increasing 24/7 economy and related variation in exposure to environmental factors (such as light and food).

Aim

The aim of the present study was to determine whether a set of often used biomarkers shows diurnal variation in a setting resembling large molecular epidemiology studies, i.e., non-fasted and limited control possibilities for other environmental influences.

Results

We show that markers for which diurnal variation is not an issue are adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, estradiol and high-density lipoprotein. For all other tested markers diurnal variation was observed in at least one gender (cholesterol, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, free fatty acids, low-density lipoprotein, luteinizing hormone, prolactin, progesterone, testosterone, triglycerides, total triiodothyronine and thyroid-stimulating hormone) or could not reliably be detected (human growth hormone).

Discussion

Thus, studies investigating these markers should take diurnal variation into account, for which we provide some options. Furthermore, our study indicates the need for investigating diurnal variation (in literature or experimentally) before setting up studies measuring markers in routine and controlled settings, especially since time-of-day likely matters for many more markers than the ones investigated in the present study.

Biomarkers for circadian rhythm disruption independent of time of day

Frequent shift work causes disruption of the circadian rhythm and might on the long-term result in increased health risk. Current biomarkers evaluating the presence of circadian rhythm disturbance (CRD), including melatonin, cortisol and body temperature, require 24-hr (“around the clock”) measurements, which is tedious. Therefore, these markers are not eligible to be used in large-scale (human) studies. The aim of the present study was to identify universal biomarkers for CRD independent of time of day using a transcriptomics approach. Female FVB mice were exposed to six shifts in a clockwise (CW) and counterclockwise (CCW) CRD protocol and sacrificed at baseline and after 1 shift, 6 shifts, 5 days recovery and 14 days recovery, respectively. At six time-points during the day, livers were collected for mRNA microarray analysis. Using a classification approach, we identified a set of biomarkers able to classify samples into either CRD or non-disrupted based on the hepatic gene expression. Furthermore, we identified differentially expressed genes 14 days after the last shift compared to baseline for both CRD protocols. Non-circadian genes differentially expressed upon both CW and CCW protocol were considered useful, universal markers for CRD. One candidate marker i.e. CD36 was evaluated in serum samples of the CRD animals versus controls. These biomarkers might be useful to measure CRD and can be used later on for monitoring the effectiveness of intervention strategies aiming to prevent or minimize chronic adverse health effects.

Rodent models to study the metabolic effects of shiftwork in humans

Our current 24-h society requires an increasing number of employees to work nightshifts with millions of people worldwide working during the evening or night. Clear associations have been found between shiftwork and the risk to develop metabolic health problems, such as obesity. An increasing number of studies suggest that the underlying mechanism includes disruption of the rhythmically organized body physiology. Normally, daily 24-h rhythms in physiological processes are controlled by the central clock in the brain in close collaboration with peripheral clocks present throughout the body. Working schedules of shiftworkers greatly interfere with these normal daily rhythms by exposing the individual to contrasting inputs, i.e., at the one hand (dim)light exposure at night, nightly activity and eating and at the other hand daytime sleep and reduced light exposure. Several different animal models are being used to mimic shiftwork and study the mechanism responsible for the observed correlation between shiftwork and metabolic diseases. In this review we aim to provide an overview of the available animal studies with a focus on the four most relevant models that are being used to mimic human shiftwork: altered timing of (1) food intake, (2) activity, (3) sleep, or (4) light exposure. For all studies we scored whether and how relevant metabolic parameters, such as bodyweight, adiposity and plasma glucose were affected by the manipulation. In the discussion, we focus on differences between shiftwork models and animal species (i.e., rat and mouse). In addition, we comment on the complexity of shiftwork as an exposure and the subsequent difficulties when using animal models to investigate this condition. In view of the added value of animal models over human cohorts to study the effects and mechanisms of shiftwork, we conclude with recommendations to improve future research protocols to study the causality between shiftwork and metabolic health problems using animal models.

Methylphenidate and atomoxetine inhibit social play behavior through prefrontal and subcortical limbic mechanisms in rats

Positive social interactions during the juvenile and adolescent phases of life, in the form of social play behavior, are important for social and cognitive development. However, the neural mechanisms of social play behavior remain incompletely understood. We have previously shown that methylphenidate and atomoxetine, drugs widely used for the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), suppress social play in rats through a noradrenergic mechanism of action. Here, we aimed to identify the neural substrates of the play-suppressant effects of these drugs. Methylphenidate is thought to exert its effects on cognition and emotion through limbic corticostriatal systems. Therefore, methylphenidate was infused into prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortical regions as well as into several subcortical limbic areas implicated in social play. Infusion of methylphenidate into the anterior cingulate cortex, infralimbic cortex, basolateral amygdala, and habenula inhibited social play, but not social exploratory behavior or locomotor activity. Consistent with a noradrenergic mechanism of action of methylphenidate, infusion of the noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor atomoxetine into these same regions also reduced social play. Methylphenidate administration into the prelimbic, medial/ventral orbitofrontal, and ventrolateral orbitofrontal cortex, mediodorsal thalamus, or nucleus accumbens shell was ineffective. Our data show that the inhibitory effects of methylphenidate and atomoxetine on social play are mediated through a distributed network of prefrontal and limbic subcortical regions implicated in cognitive control and emotional processes. These findings increase our understanding of the neural underpinnings of this developmentally important social behavior, as well as the mechanism of action of two widely used treatments for ADHD.

Functional integrity of the habenula is necessary for social play behaviour in rats

During post-weaning development, a marked increase in peer-peer interactions is observed in mammals, including humans, which is signified by the abundance of social play behaviour. Social play is highly rewarding, and known to be modulated through monoaminergic neurotransmission. Recently, the habenula has received widespread attention because of its role in the regulation of monoaminergic neurotransmission as well as in a variety of emotional and cognitive functions. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the involvement of the habenula in social play behaviour. Using the neuronal activity maker c-fos, we showed that the habenula was activated after 24 h of social isolation in adolescent rats, and that a subsequent social play interaction reduced c-fos activity in the medial part of the lateral habenula. This suggested that habenula activity modulated the aversive properties of social isolation, which was alleviated by the positive effects of social play. Furthermore, after functional inactivation of the habenula, using a mixture of the GABA receptor agonists baclofen and muscimol, social play behaviour was markedly reduced, whereby responsiveness to play solicitation was more sensitive to habenula inactivation than play solicitation itself. Together, our data indicate an important role for the habenula in the processing of positive (i.e., social play behaviour) and negative (i.e., social isolation) social information in adolescent rats. Altered habenula function might therefore be related to the social impairments in childhood and adolescent psychiatric disorders such as autism, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and early-onset schizophrenia.

Inflexible and indifferent alcohol drinking in male mice

BACKGROUND

Alcoholism is characterized by compulsive alcohol intake, but this critical feature of alcoholism is seldom captured in preclinical studies. Here, we evaluated whether alcohol-preferring C57BL/6J mice develop compulsive alcohol drinking patterns, using adulteration of the alcohol solution with quinine, in a limited access choice paradigm. We assessed 2 independent aspects of compulsive drinking: (i) inflexible alcohol intake by testing whether mice would drink bitter alcohol solutions if this was their only source of alcohol and (ii) indifferent drinking by comparing intake of aversive and nonaversive alcohol solutions.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice consumed alcohol for 2 or 8 consecutive weeks. The alcohol solution was then adulterated with graded quinine concentrations, and the effect on alcohol intake was determined.

RESULTS

C57BL/6J mice rapidly developed compulsive alcohol drinking patterns. Adulteration of the alcohol solution with an aversive quinine concentration failed to reduce intake, indicative of inflexible drinking behavior, after only 2 weeks of alcohol experience, although quinine adulteration did suppress the acquisition of alcohol drinking in naïve mice. After 8 weeks of alcohol consumption, the mice also became indifferent to quinine. They consumed an aversive, quinine-containing alcohol solution, despite the simultaneous availability of an unadulterated alcohol solution. Prolonged alcohol ingestion did not alter the sensitivity to the bitter taste of quinine itself.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate the staged occurrence in mice of 2 distinct behavioral characteristics of alcoholism, i.e., inflexible and indifferent alcohol drinking.