Increasing maternal glucose concentrations is insufficient to restore placental glucose transfer in chorionic somatomammotropin RNA interference pregnancies

We previously demonstrated impaired placental nutrient transfer in chorionic somatomammotropin (CSH) RNA interference (RNAi) pregnancies, with glucose transfer being the most impacted. Thus, we hypothesized that despite experimentally elevating maternal glucose, diminished umbilical glucose uptake would persist in CSH RNAi pregnancies, demonstrating the necessity of CSH for adequate placental glucose transfer. Trophectoderm of sheep blastocysts (9 days of gestational age; dGA) were infected with a lentivirus expressing either nontargeting control (CON RNAi; n = 5) or CSH-specific shRNA (CSH RNAi; n = 7) before transfer into recipient sheep. At 126 dGA, pregnancies were fitted with vascular catheters and underwent steady-state metabolic studies (3H2O transplacental diffusion) at 137 ± 0 dGA, before and during a maternal hyperglycemic clamp. Umbilical glucose and oxygen uptakes, as well as insulin and IGF1 concentrations, were impaired (P ≤ 0.01) in CSH RNAi fetuses and were not rescued by elevated maternal glucose. This is partially due to impaired uterine and umbilical blood flow (P ≤ 0.01). However, uteroplacental oxygen utilization was greater (P ≤ 0.05) during the maternal hyperglycemic clamp, consistent with greater placental oxidation of substrates. The relationship between umbilical glucose uptake and the maternal-fetal glucose gradient was analyzed, and while the slope (CON RNAi, Y = 29.54X +74.15; CSH RNAi, Y = 19.05X + 52.40) was not different, the y-intercepts and elevation were (P = 0.003), indicating reduced maximal glucose transport during maternal hyperglycemia. Together, these data suggested that CSH plays a key role in modulating placental metabolism that ultimately promotes maximal placental glucose transfer.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The current study demonstrated a novel, critical autocrine role for chorionic somatomammotropin in augmenting placental glucose transfer and maintaining placental oxidative metabolism. In pregnancies with CSH deficiency, excess glucose in maternal circulation is insufficient to overcome fetal hypoglycemia due to impaired placental glucose transfer and elevated placental metabolic demands. This suggests that perturbations in glucose transfer in CSH RNAi pregnancies are due to compromised metabolic efficiency along with reduced placental mass.

Fetal Hypoglycemia Induced by Placental SLC2A3-RNA Interference Alters Fetal Pancreas Development and Transcriptome at Mid-Gestation

Glucose, the primary energy substrate for fetal oxidative processes and growth, is transferred from maternal to fetal circulation down a concentration gradient by placental facilitative glucose transporters. In sheep, SLC2A1 and SLC2A3 are the primary transporters available in the placental epithelium, with SLC2A3 located on the maternal-facing apical trophoblast membrane and SLC2A1 located on the fetal-facing basolateral trophoblast membrane. We have previously reported that impaired placental SLC2A3 glucose transport resulted in smaller, hypoglycemic fetuses with reduced umbilical artery insulin and glucagon concentrations, in addition to diminished pancreas weights. These findings led us to subject RNA derived from SLC2A3-RNAi (RNA interference) and NTS-RNAi (non-targeting sequence) fetal pancreases to qPCR followed by transcriptomic analysis. We identified a total of 771 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Upregulated pathways were associated with fat digestion and absorption, particularly fatty acid transport, lipid metabolism, and cholesterol biosynthesis, suggesting a potential switch in energetic substrates due to hypoglycemia. Pathways related to molecular transport and cell signaling in addition to pathways influencing growth and metabolism of the developing pancreas were also impacted. A few genes directly related to gluconeogenesis were also differentially expressed. Our results suggest that fetal hypoglycemia during the first half of gestation impacts fetal pancreas development and function that is not limited to β cell activity.

High-fat diet during pregnancy promotes fetal skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation and insulin resistance in an ovine model

Maternal diet during pregnancy is associated with offspring metabolic risk trajectory in humans and animal models, but the prenatal origins of these effects are less clear. We examined the effects of a high-fat diet (HFD) during pregnancy on fetal skeletal muscle metabolism and metabolic risk parameters using an ovine model. White-faced ewes were fed a standardized diet containing 5% fat wt/wt (CON), or the same diet supplemented with 6% rumen-protected fats (11% total fat wt/wt; HFD) beginning 2 wk before mating until midgestation (GD75). Maternal HFD increased maternal weight gain, fetal body weight, and low-density lipoprotein levels in the uterine and umbilical circulation but had no significant effects on circulating glucose, triglycerides, or placental fatty acid transporters. Fatty acid (palmitoylcarnitine) oxidation capacity of permeabilized hindlimb muscle fibers was >50% higher in fetuses from HFD pregnancies, whereas pyruvate and maximal (mixed substrate) oxidation capacities were similar to CON. This corresponded to greater triacylglycerol content and protein expression of fatty acid transport and oxidation enzymes in fetal muscle but no significant effect on respiratory chain complexes or pyruvate dehydrogenase expression. However, serine-308 phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 was greater in fetal muscle from HFD pregnancies along with c-jun-NH2 terminal kinase activation, consistent with prenatal inhibition of skeletal muscle insulin signaling. These results indicate that maternal high-fat feeding shifts fetal skeletal muscle metabolism toward a greater capacity for fatty acid over glucose utilization and favors prenatal development of insulin resistance, which may predispose offspring to metabolic syndrome later in life.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Maternal diet during pregnancy is associated with offspring metabolic risk trajectory in humans and animal models, but the prenatal origins of these effects are less clear. This study examined the effects of a high-fat diet during pregnancy on metabolic risk parameters using a new sheep model. Results align with findings previously reported in nonhuman primates, demonstrating changes in fetal skeletal muscle metabolism that may predispose offspring to metabolic syndrome later in life.

Impact of Chorionic Somatomammotropin In Vivo RNA Interference Phenotype on Uteroplacental Expression of the IGF Axis

While fetal growth is dependent on many factors, optimal placental function is a prerequisite for a normal pregnancy outcome. The majority of fetal growth-restricted (FGR) pregnancies result from placental insufficiency (PI). The insulin-like growth factors (IGF1 and IGF2) stimulate fetal growth and placental development and function. Previously, we demonstrated that in vivo RNA interference (RNAi) of the placental hormone, chorionic somatomammotropin (CSH), resulted in two phenotypes. One phenotype exhibits significant placental and fetal growth restriction (PI-FGR), impaired placental nutrient transport, and significant reductions in umbilical insulin and IGF1. The other phenotype does not exhibit statistically significant changes in placental or fetal growth (non-FGR). It was our objective to further characterize these two phenotypes by determining the impact of CSH RNAi on the placental (maternal caruncle and fetal cotyledon) expression of the IGF axis. The trophectoderm of hatched blastocysts (9 days of gestation, dGA) were infected with a lentivirus expressing either a non-targeting sequence (NTS RNAi) control or CSH-specific shRNA (CSH RNAi) prior to embryo transfer into synchronized recipient ewes. At ≈125 dGA, pregnancies were fitted with vascular catheters to undergo steady-state metabolic studies. Nutrient uptakes were determined, and tissues were harvested at necropsy. In both CSH RNAi non-FGR and PI-FGR pregnancies, uterine blood flow was significantly reduced (p ≤ 0.05), while umbilical blood flow (p ≤ 0.01), both uterine and umbilical glucose and oxygen uptakes (p ≤ 0.05), and umbilical concentrations of insulin and IGF1 (p ≤ 0.05) were reduced in CSH RNAi PI-FGR pregnancies. Fetal cotyledon IGF1 mRNA concentration was reduced (p ≤ 0.05) in CSH RNAi PI-FGR pregnancies, whereas neither IGF1 nor IGF2 mRNA concentrations were impacted in the maternal caruncles, and either placental tissue in the non-FGR pregnancies. Fetal cotyledon IGF1R and IGF2R mRNA concentrations were not impacted for either phenotype, yet IGF2R was increased (p ≤ 0.01) in the maternal caruncles of CSH RNAi PI-FGR pregnancies. For the IGF binding proteins (IGFBP1, IGFBP2, IGFBP3), only IGFBP2 mRNA concentrations were impacted, with elevated IGFBP2 mRNA in both the fetal cotyledon (p ≤ 0.01) and maternal caruncle (p = 0.08) of CSH RNAi non-FGR pregnancies. These data support the importance of IGF1 in placental growth and function but may also implicate IGFBP2 in salvaging placental growth in non-FGR pregnancies.

Impact of Placental SLC2A3 Deficiency during the First-Half of Gestation

In the ruminant placenta, glucose uptake and transfer are mediated by facilitative glucose transporters SLC2A1 (GLUT1) and SLC2A3 (GLUT3). SLC2A1 is located on the basolateral trophoblast membrane, whereas SLC2A3 is located solely on the maternal-facing, apical trophoblast membrane. While SLC2A3 is less abundant than SLC2A1, SLC2A3 has a five-fold greater affinity and transport capacity. Based on its location, SLC2A3 likely plays a significant role in the uptake of glucose into the trophoblast. Fetal hypoglycemia is a hallmark of fetal growth restriction (FGR), and as such, any deficiency in SLC2A3 could impact trophoblast glucose uptake and transfer to the fetus, thus potentially setting the stage for FGR. By utilizing in vivo placenta-specific lentiviral-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) in sheep, we were able to significantly diminish (p ≤ 0.05) placental SLC2A3 concentration, and determine the impact at mid-gestation (75 dGA). In response to SLC2A3 RNAi (n = 6), the fetuses were hypoglycemic (p ≤ 0.05), exhibited reduced fetal growth, including reduced fetal pancreas weight (p ≤ 0.05), which was associated with reduced umbilical artery insulin and glucagon concentrations, when compared to the non-targeting sequence (NTS) RNAi controls (n = 6). By contrast, fetal liver weights were not impacted, nor were umbilical artery concentrations of IGF1, possibly resulting from a 70% increase (p ≤ 0.05) in umbilical vein chorionic somatomammotropin (CSH) concentrations. Thus, during the first half of gestation, a deficiency in SLC2A3 results in fetal hypoglycemia, reduced fetal development, and altered metabolic hormone concentrations. These results suggest that SLC2A3 may be the rate-limiting placental glucose transporter during the first-half of gestation in sheep.

In vivo investigation of ruminant placenta function and physiology-a review

The placenta facilitates the transport of nutrients to the fetus, removal of waste products from the fetus, immune protection of the fetus and functions as an endocrine organ, thereby determining the environment for fetal growth and development. Additionally, the placenta is a highly metabolic organ in itself, utilizing a majority of the oxygen and glucose derived from maternal circulation. Consequently, optimal placental function is required for the offspring to reach its genetic potential in utero. Among ruminants, pregnant sheep have been used extensively for investigating pregnancy physiology, in part due to the ability to place indwelling catheters within both maternal and fetal vessels, allowing for steady-state investigation of blood flow, nutrient uptakes and utilization, and hormone secretion, under non-stressed and non-anesthetized conditions. This methodology has been applied to both normal and compromised pregnancies. As such, our understanding of the in vivo physiology of pregnancy in sheep is unrivalled by any other species. However, until recently, a significant deficit existed in determining the specific function or significance of individual genes expressed by the placenta in ruminants. To that end, we developed and have been using in vivo RNA interference (RNAi) within the sheep placenta to examine the function and relative importance of genes involved in conceptus development (PRR15 and LIN28), placental nutrient transport (SLC2A1 and SLC2A3), and placenta-derived hormones (CSH). A lentiviral vector is used to generate virus that is stably integrated into the infected cell's genome, thereby expressing a short-hairpin RNA (shRNA), that when processed within the cell, combines with the RNA Induced Silencing Complex (RISC) resulting in specific mRNA degradation or translational blockage. To accomplish in vivo RNAi, day 9 hatched and fully expanded blastocysts are infected with the lentivirus for 4 to 5 h, and then surgically transferred to synchronized recipient uteri. Only the trophectoderm cells are infected by the replication deficient virus, leaving the inner cell mass unaltered, and we often obtain ~70% pregnancy rates following transfer of a single blastocyst. In vivo RNAi coupled with steady-state study of blood flow and nutrient uptake, transfer and utilization can now provide new insight into the physiological consequences of modifying the translation of specific genes expressed within the ruminant placenta.

CSH RNA Interference Reduces Global Nutrient Uptake and Umbilical Blood Flow Resulting in Intrauterine Growth Restriction

Deficiency of the placental hormone chorionic somatomammotropin (CSH) can lead to the development of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). To gain insight into the physiological consequences of CSH RNA interference (RNAi), the trophectoderm of hatched blastocysts (nine days of gestational age; dGA) was infected with a lentivirus expressing either a scrambled control or CSH-specific shRNA, prior to transfer into synchronized recipient sheep. At 90 dGA, umbilical hemodynamics and fetal measurements were assessed by Doppler ultrasonography. At 120 dGA, pregnancies were fitted with vascular catheters to undergo steady-state metabolic studies with the ³H₂O transplacental diffusion technique at 130 dGA. Nutrient uptake rates were determined and tissues were subsequently harvested at necropsy. CSH RNAi reduced (p ≤ 0.05) both fetal and uterine weights as well as umbilical blood flow (mL/min). This ultimately resulted in reduced (p ≤ 0.01) umbilical IGF1 concentrations, as well as reduced umbilical nutrient uptakes (p ≤ 0.05) in CSH RNAi pregnancies. CSH RNAi also reduced (p ≤ 0.05) uterine nutrient uptakes as well as uteroplacental glucose utilization. These data suggest that CSH is necessary to facilitate adequate blood flow for the uptake of oxygen, oxidative substrates, and hormones essential to support fetal and uterine growth.

Histone Lysine Demethylase 1A Is a Master Regulator of Genes Necessary for Trophoblast Cell Proliferation

Histone lysine demethylase 1A is a master regulator of genes necessary for trophoblast cell proliferation.

A proper functioning placenta is critical for pregnancy, fetal growth and development and postnatal health. Trophoblast cell proliferation and differentiation is critical for placental development and function. Recently we demonstrated that the histone lysine demethylase KDM1A binds to androgen receptor (AR) in human and sheep trophoblast cells, and targets the same promoter region of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), suggesting a role for KDM1A and AR in early placental angiogenesis. The goal of this study was to determine the function of KDM1A during early placental development. We hypothesized that KDM1A regulates genes that are necessary for trophoblast cell proliferation, and early placental development. To this end, both in vitro and in vivo approaches were used in this study. ACH-3P cells (human first trimester trophoblast cells (CT and EVT) fused with the choriocarcinoma cell line AC1-1) were used, and a KDM1A knock out (KO) cell line was generated using CRISPR-Cas 9 based genome editing. KDM1A KO in ACH-3P cells led to significant (P<0.05) reduction in AR and VEGFA. Furthermore, factors important for cell proliferation and trophoblast cell development high mobility group AT-hook 1 (HMGA1), LIN28, and MYC protooncogene (cMYC) were significantly (P<0.05) lower in KDM1A KO ACH-3P cells. Cell proliferation assays revealed a significant (P<0.05) reduction in KDM1A KO ACH-3P cells compared to scramble controls. An in vivo experiment was conducted to demonstrate a role for KDM1A in placental development, using the sheep as a model. Day 9 hatched blastocysts were flushed and infected with a Lenti-CRISPRv2 KDM1A target construct (n=4) to knockout KDM1A specifically in the trophectoderm, or with SC (n=5). Infected embryos were transferred to recipient ewes and embryos were collected at gestational day 16. Data suggests that KDM1A KO in trophoblast cells is necessary for conceptus elongation. Current experiments are ongoing to determine the effects of KDM1A and AR knockdown using shRNA lentiviral target vectors on conceptus elongation and pregnancy. Collectively these results indicate that KDM1A plays a central role in regulating genes necessary for trophoblast cell proliferation.

This project was supported by Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Competitive Grant no. 2019-67015-29000 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture.

MicroRNA-mRNA Networks in Pregnancy Complications: A Comprehensive Downstream Analysis of Potential Biomarkers

Pregnancy complications are a major cause of fetal and maternal morbidity and mortality in humans. The majority of pregnancy complications initiate due to abnormal placental development and function. During the last decade, the role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in regulating placental and fetal development has become evident. Dysregulation of miRNAs in the placenta not only affects placental development and function, but these miRNAs can also be exported to both maternal and fetal compartments and affect maternal physiology and fetal growth and development. Due to their differential expression in the placenta and maternal circulation during pregnancy complications, miRNAs can be used as diagnostic biomarkers. However, the differential expression of a miRNA in the placenta may not always be reflected in maternal circulation, which makes it difficult to find a reliable biomarker for placental dysfunction. In this review, we provide an overview of differentially expressed miRNAs in the placenta and/or maternal circulation during preeclampsia (PE) and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), which can potentially serve as biomarkers for prediction or diagnosis of pregnancy complications. Using different bioinformatics tools, we also identified potential target genes of miRNAs associated with PE and IUGR, and the role of miRNA-mRNA networks in the regulation of important signaling pathways and biological processes.

Impact of chorionic somatomammotropin RNA interference on uterine blood flow and placental glucose uptake in the absence of intrauterine growth restriction

Chorionic somatomammotropin (CSH) is one of the most abundantly produced placental hormones, yet its exact function remains elusive. Near-term [135 days of gestational age (dGA)], CSH RNA interference (RNAi) results in two distinct phenotypes: 1) pregnancies with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), and 2) pregnancies with normal fetal and placental weights. Here, we report the physiological changes in CSH RNAi pregnancies without IUGR. The trophectoderm of hatched blastocysts (9 dGA) were infected with lentiviral-constructs expressing either a scrambled control (Control RNAi) or CSH-specific shRNA (CSH RNAi), prior to transfer into synchronized recipient ewes. At 126 dGA, Control RNAi (n = 6) and CSH RNAi (n = 6) pregnancies were fitted with maternal and fetal catheters. Uterine and umbilical blood flows were measured at 132 dGA and nutrient uptakes were calculated by the Fick's principle. Control RNAi and CSH RNAi pregnancies were compared by analysis of variance, and significance was set at P ≤ 0.05. Absolute (mL/min) and relative (mL/min/kg fetus) uterine blood flows were reduced (P ≤ 0.05) in CSH RNAi pregnancies, but umbilical flows were not impacted. The uterine artery-to-vein glucose gradient (mmol/L) was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased. The uteroplacental glucose uptake (μmoL/min/kg placenta) was increased (P ≤ 0.05), whereas umbilical glucose uptake (μmoL/min/kg fetus) was reduced. Our results demonstrate that CSH RNAi has significant physiological ramifications, even in the absence of IUGR, and comparing CSH RNAi pregnancies exhibiting both IUGR and non-IUGR phenotypes may help determine the direct effects of CSH and its potential impact on fetal development.

Chorionic somatomammotropin RNA interference alters fetal liver glucose utilization

Chorionic somatomammotropin (CSH) is a placenta-specific hormone associated with fetal growth, and fetal and maternal metabolism in both humans and sheep. We hypothesized that CSH deficiency could impact sheep fetal liver glucose utilization. To generate CSH-deficient pregnancies, day 9 hatched blastocysts were infected with lentiviral particles expressing CSH-specific shRNA (RNAi) or scramble control shRNA (SC) and transferred to synchronized recipients. CSH RNAi generated two distinct phenotypes at 135 days of gestational age (dGA); pregnancies with IUGR (RNAi-IUGR) or with normal fetal weight (RNAi-NW). Fetal body, fetal liver and placental weights were reduced (P < 0.05) only in RNAi-IUGR pregnancies compared to SC. Umbilical artery plasma insulin and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) concentrations were decreased, whereas insulin receptor beta (INSR) concentration in fetal liver was increased (P < 0.05) in both RNAi phenotypes. The mRNA concentrations of IGF1, IGF2, IGF binding protein 2 (IGFBP2) and IGFBP3 were decreased (P < 0.05) in fetal livers from both RNAi phenotypes. Fetal liver glycogen concentration and glycogen synthase 1 (GYS1) concentration were increased (P < 0.05), whereas fetal liver phosphorylated-GYS (inactive GYS) concentration was reduced (P < 0.05) in both RNAi phenotypes. Lactate dehydrogenase B (LDHB) concentration was increased (P < 0.05) and IGF2 concentration was decreased (P < 0.05) in RNAi-IUGR fetal livers only. Our findings suggest that fetal liver glucose utilization is impacted by CSH RNAi, independent of IUGR, and is likely tied to enhanced fetal liver insulin sensitivity in both RNAi phenotypes. Determining the physiological ramifications of both phenotypes, may help to differentiate direct effect of CSH deficiency or its indirect effect through IUGR.

PSII-34 Placental GLUT3 (SLC2A3) RNA interference: Impact on fetal growth at mid-gestation

Glucose is the predominant energy substrate for fetal oxidative processes and growth, and is taken up by the placenta and transported to the fetus by the facilitative transporters GLUT1 (SLC2A1) and GLUT3 (SLC2A3). SLC2A1 is the most abundant placental transporter, and as such is believed to be the primary glucose transporter in human and sheep placenta. However, SLC2A3 exhibits a six-fold greater glucose transport capacity, and in sheep, SLC2A3 is localized to the apical trophoblast membrane, whereas SLC2A1 is predominantly localized to the basolateral membrane, indicating that both may be required for optimal fetal development. It was our objective to use placenta-specific RNA interference (RNAi) to diminish SLC2A3, and determine the impact at mid-gestation (75 dGA) in sheep. Single hatched blastocysts were harvested and the trophectoderm was infected with lentiviral constructs expressing either a scramble control (SC) or SLC2A3-specific (GLUT3-RNAi) short-hairpin RNA, and then surgically transferred into a synchronized recipient. The resulting pregnancies underwent ultrasound Doppler velocimetry and fetal measurements at 70 dGA, and a terminal surgery at 75 dGA for collection of uterine and umbilical arterial and venous blood, fetal and placental measurements and tissue samples. Due to a lack of fetal sex x treatment interactions, statistical comparisons between SC (n = 6) and GLUT3-RNAi (n = 6) pregnancies were made by Student’s T-test. At 70 dGA, while umbilical artery velocimetry was not impacted, biparietal diameter (P ≤ 0.10), femur length and tibia length (P ≤ 0.05) were reduced in GLUT3-RNAi pregnancies. These results were confirmed at 75 dGA surgery, as GLUT3-RNAi fetuses had reduced fetal weight (P ≤ 0.10), head circumference (P ≤ 0.05), femur length (P ≤ 0.05), and tibia length (P ≤ 0.05). While it has been suggested that GLUT3 is predominantly important in late gestation, these preliminary data indicate that GLUT3 is important for normal fetal development during the first-half of gestation as well. Supported by NIH grant HD094952.

PSII-39 Trophectoderm-specific RNA interference of chorionic somatomammotropin alters glucose metabolism in sheep fetal liver

Chorionic somatomammotropin (CSH) is a placenta-specific hormone and secreted into both fetal and maternal circulation. Reduced maternal CSH is observed with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) in both humans and sheep, and it has long been held that CSH modulates maternal and fetal metabolism. We hypothesized that CSH deficiency, created by RNA interference (RNAi), could impact fetal liver glucose metabolism. To generate CSH-deficient pregnancies, day 9 hatched blastocysts were infected with lentiviral particles expressing CSH-specific shRNA (RNAi) or scramble control shRNA (SC) and transferred to synchronized recipients. CSH RNAi generated two distinct phenotypes at 135 dGA; CSH RNAi pregnancies with IUGR (RNAi-IUGR; n = 8) or without IUGR (RNAi; n = 8). Data from both RNAi phenotypes were compared separately with SC using Welch’s t-test. Liver and placental weights were reduced (P &lt; 0.05) in RNAi-IUGR pregnancies, but not in RNAi pregnancies, as compared to SC (n = 8). Umbilical artery plasma insulin and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) concentrations were decreased (P &lt; 0.05), whereas insulin receptor beta (IRβ) concentration, as determined by Western immunoblot analysis, in fetal liver was increased (P &lt; 0.05) in both RNAi phenotypes. Fetal liver glycogen quantity was also increased (P &lt; 0.05) in both RNAi phenotypes. Glycogen synthase-1 (GYS-1) concentration in fetal liver was increased (P &lt; 0.05) in both RNAi phenotypes, whereas there was no change in GYS-2 concentration. Phosphorylated-GYS (inactive GYS) was reduced (P &lt; 0.05) in fetal livers for both RNAi phenotypes. Lactate dehydrogenase beta (LDHβ) concentration was increased (P &lt; 0.05) and IGF2 concentration was decreased (P &lt; 0.05) in RNAi-IUGR fetal livers only. From these results we conclude that fetal liver glucose metabolism is impacted by CSH RNAi, independent of IUGR, and is likely tied to enhanced insulin sensitivity in both CSH RNAi phenotypes. Differences between the two phenotypes may help differentiate direct and indirect effects of CSH. Supported by NIH R01 HD093701.

152 Impact of chorionic somatomammotropin RNA interference on uterine blood flow and placental glucose uptake in the absence of intrauterine growth restriction

Chorionic somatomammotropin (CSH) is one of the most abundant hormones produced by the sheep placenta, yet the exact function of CSH has been elusive. Previously we reported the use of in vivo RNA interference (RNAi) to assess the impact of CSH deficiency on placental and fetal growth in sheep. Near-term (135 dGA), there are two distinct CSH RNAi phenotypes: 1) pregnancies with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), and 2) pregnancies with normal fetal and placental weights. This study describes physiological changes in the latter phenotype. To generate the CSH RNAi pregnancies, the trophectoderm of hatched blastocysts (9 dGA) were infected with lentiviral-constructs expressing either a scrambled control (NTS) or CSH-specific shRNA (CSH RNAi), prior to transfer into synchronized recipient ewes. At 120 dGA, 6 NTS and 6 CSH RNAi pregnancies were fitted with maternal and fetal catheters. Uterine and umbilical blood flows were measured utilizing the 3H2O transplacental diffusion technique at 132 dGA, and nutrient uptakes were calculated by the Fick principle. Resulting data were analyzed by Student’s t-test and significance was set at P ≤ 0.05. CSH RNAi tended (P ≤ 0.10) to reduce placentome weight with no effect on fetal weight. Absolute (ml/min) and relative (ml/min/kg fetus) uterine blood flows were reduced (P ≤ 0.05) in CSH RNAi pregnancies, but umbilical flows were not impacted. The uterine artery-to-vein glucose gradient (mmol/l) was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased, whereas the gradients for taurine and glycine were reduced (P ≤ 0.05). Uteroplacental glucose uptake (mmol/min/kg placenta) was increased 27% (P ≤ 0.05), whereas umbilical glucose uptake (mmol/min/kg fetus) was reduced 13%. This cohort demonstrates that even in the absence of IUGR, CSH deficiency has significant physiological ramifications, and the investigation of CSH RNAi pregnancies exhibiting both IUGR and non-IUGR phenotypes may help determine the direct effects of CSH and its potential impact on fetal programming. Supported by NIH R01 HD093701.

Maternal Influenza A Virus Infection Restricts Fetal and Placental Growth and Adversely Affects the Fetal Thymic Transcriptome

Maternal influenza A viral infections in humans are associated with low birth weight, increased risk of pre-term birth, stillbirth and congenital defects. To examine the effect of maternal influenza virus infection on placental and fetal growth, pregnant C57BL/6 mice were inoculated intranasally with influenza A virus A/CA/07/2009 pandemic H1N1 or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) at E3.5, E7.5 or E12.5, and the placentae and fetuses collected and weighed at E18.5. Fetal thymuses were pooled from each litter. Placentae were examined histologically, stained by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for CD34 (hematopoietic progenitor cell antigen) and vascular channels quantified. RNA from E7.5 and E12.5 placentae and E7.5 fetal thymuses was subjected to RNA sequencing and pathway analysis. Placental weights were decreased in litters inoculated with influenza at E3.5 and E7.5. Placentae from E7.5 and E12.5 inoculated litters exhibited decreased labyrinth development and the transmembrane protein 150A gene was upregulated in E7.5 placentae. Fetal weights were decreased in litters inoculated at E7.5 and E12.5 compared to controls. RNA sequencing of E7.5 thymuses indicated that 957 genes were downregulated ≥2-fold including Mal, which is associated with Toll-like receptor signaling and T cell differentiation. There were 28 upregulated genes. It is concluded that maternal influenza A virus infection impairs fetal thymic gene expression as well as restricting placental and fetal growth.

HMGA2 is regulated by LIN28 and BRCA1 in human placental cells

The chromatin associated transcription factor HMGA2 is a downstream target of let-7 miRNAs and binds to chromatin to regulate gene expression. Inhibition of let-7 miRNAs by RNA-binding proteins LIN28A and LIN28B is necessary during early embryogenesis to ensure stable expression of HMGA2. In addition to LIN28, HMGA2 is regulated by a BRCA1/ZNF350/CtIP repressor complex. In normal tissues, the BRCA1/ZNF350/CtIP complex binds to the HMGA2 promoter to prevent transcription. However, in many cancers the oncomiR miR-182 targets BRCA1, preventing BRCA1 translation and allowing for increased HMGA2. Little is known about the regulation of HMGA2 during early placental development; therefore, we hypothesized that both LIN28 and BRCA1 can regulate HMGA2 in placental cells. Using siRNA and CRISPR gene editing techniques, we found that knockdowns of both LIN28A and LIN28B increase HMGA2 levels in ACH-3P cells. These cells also demonstrated deficiencies in cell differentiation, seemingly differentiating solely towards the syncytiotrophoblast sublineage, secreting higher amounts of hCG, and displaying upregulated ERVW-1. Additionally, we found that a knockout of both LIN28A and LIN28B caused a significant increase of miR-182 and a decrease in BRCA1 allowing HMGA2 mRNA levels to increase and protein levels to remain the same. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation, we saw binding of the BRCA1 repressor complex to HMGA2. We also saw a decrease in binding to HMGA2's promoter in the LIN28A/B knockout cells. These findings suggest a novel role for BRCA1 during early human placental development.

LIN28-let-7 axis regulates genes in immortalized human trophoblast cells by targeting the ARID3B-complex

Abnormal placental development is one of the main etiological factors for intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Here, we show that LIN28A and LIN28B are significantly lower and lethal-7 (let-7) microRNAs (miRNAs) significantly higher in term human IUGR vs. normal placentas. We hypothesize that let-7 miRNAs regulate genes with known importance for human placental development [high-mobility group AT-hook 1 (HMGA1), transcriptional regulator Myc-like (c-myc), vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), and Wnt family member 1 (WNT1)] by targeting the AT-rich interacting domain (ARID)-3B complex. ACH-3P cells with LIN28A and LIN28B knockout (DKOs) significantly increased let-7 miRNAs, leading to significantly decreased ARID3A, ARID3B, and lysine demethylase 4C (KDM4C). Similarly, Sw.71 cells overexpressing LIN28A and LIN28B (DKIs) significantly decreased let-7 miRNAs, leading to significantly increased ARID3A, ARID3B, and KDM4C. In ACH-3P cells, ARID3A, ARID3B, and KDM4C make a triprotein complex [triprotein complex comprising ARID3A, ARID3B, and KDM4C (ARID3B-complex)] that binds the promoter regions of HMGA1, c-MYC, VEGF-A, and WNT1. ARID3B knockout in ACH-3P cells disrupted the ARID3B-complex, leading to a significant decrease in HMGA1, c-MYC, VEGF-A, and WNT1. DKOs had a significant reduction, whereas DKIs had a significant increase in HMGA1, c-MYC, VEGF-A, and WNT1, potentially due to regulation by the ARID3B-complex. This is the first study showing regulation of let-7 targets in immortalized human trophoblast cells by the ARID3B-complex.-Ali, A., Anthony, R. V., Bouma, G. J., Winger, Q. A. LIN28-let-7 axis regulates genes in immortalized human trophoblast cells by targeting the ARID3B-complex.

BRCA1 regulates HMGA2 levels in the Swan71 trophoblast cell line

During early placental development, tumor suppressors and oncogenes work synergistically to regulate cell proliferation and differentiation in a restrained manner compared with the uncontrollable growth in cancer. One example of this partnership is the regulation of the oncofetal protein HMGA2 by BRCA1. BRCA1 forms a repressor complex with ZNF350 and CtIP to bind to the promoter of HMGA2, preventing transcription. Chromatin immunoprecipitation determined BRCA1 forms this repressor complex in human trophoblast cells, suggesting a role in the placenta. Furthermore, miR-182 has been shown to target BRCA1 mRNA in ovarian cancer cells, blocking the formation of the BRCA1 repressor complex and allowing increased transcription of HMGA2. miR-182 was one of the first miRNAs described as elevated in the serum and placentas of preeclamptic women. Therefore, we hypothesized that BRCA1 is essential for normal trophoblast cell development. We used CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing and miR-182 overexpression to decrease BRCA1 protein in the Swan71 cell line. HMGA2 was significantly increased in the BRCA1 KO and miR-182 overexpressing cells compared to controls. We also determined that BRCA1 repressor complex binding to HMGA2 was significantly reduced in BRCA1 KO and miR-182 overexpressing cells compared with controls, leading us to conclude that increased HMGA2 was because of decreased binding of the BRCA1 repressor complex. Finally, we found that the caspase activity was significantly higher in BRCA1 KO and miR-182 overexpressing cells suggesting an increased amount of apoptosis. These data suggest that BRCA1 is an important regulator of the oncofetal protein HMGA2 and promotes cell survival in human placental cells.

LIN28B regulates androgen receptor in human trophoblast cells through Let-7c

LIN28B is an RNA-binding protein necessary for maintaining pluripotency in stem cells and plays an important role in trophoblast cell differentiation. LIN28B action on target gene function often involves the Let-7 miRNA family. Previous work in cancer cells revealed that LIN28 through Let-7 miRNA regulates expression of androgen receptor (AR). Considering the similarities between cancer and trophoblast cells, we hypothesize that LIN28B also is necessary for the presence of AR in human trophoblast cells. The human first-trimester trophoblast cell line, ACH-3P was used to evaluate the regulation of AR by LIN28B, and a LIN28B knockdown cell line was constructed using lentiviral-based vectors. LIN28B knockdown in ACH-3P cells resulted in significantly decreased levels of AR and increased levels of Let-7 miRNAs. Moreover, treatment of ACH-3P cells with Let-7c mimic, but not Let-7e or Let-7f, resulted in a significant reduction in LIN28B and AR. Finally, forskolin-induced syncytialization and Let-7c treatment both resulted in increased expression of syncytiotrophoblast marker ERVW-1 and a significant decrease in AR in ACH-3P. These data reveal that LIN28B regulates AR levels in trophoblast cells likely through its inhibitory actions on let-7c, which may be necessary for trophoblast cell differentiation into the syncytiotrophoblast.

Shifting perspectives from "oncogenic" to oncofetal proteins; how these factors drive placental development

Early human placental development strongly resembles carcinogenesis in otherwise healthy tissues. The progenitor cells of the placenta, the cytotrophoblast, rapidly proliferate to produce a sufficient number of cells to form an organ that will contribute to fetal development as early as the first trimester. The cytotrophoblast cells begin to differentiate, some towards the fused cells of the syncytiotrophoblast and some towards the highly invasive and migratory extravillous trophoblast. Invasion and migration of extravillous trophoblast cells mimics tumor metastasis. One key difference between cancer progression and placental development is the tight regulation of these oncogenes and oncogenic processes. Often, tumor suppressors and oncogenes work synergistically to regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, and invasion in a restrained manner compared to the uncontrollable growth in cancer. This review will compare and contrast the mechanisms that drive both cancer progression and placental development. Specifically, this review will focus on the molecular mechanisms that promote cell proliferation, evasion of apoptosis, cell invasion, and angiogenesis.

Chorionic somatomammotropin impacts early fetal growth and placental gene expression

Several developmental windows, including placentation, must be negotiated to establish and maintain pregnancy. Impaired placental function can lead to preeclampsia and/or intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), resulting in increased infant mortality and morbidity. It has been hypothesized that chorionic somatomammotropin (CSH) plays a significant role in fetal development, potentially by modifying maternal and fetal metabolism. Recently, using lentiviral-mediated in vivo RNA interference in sheep, we demonstrated significant reductions in near-term (135 days of gestation; dGA) fetal and placental size, and altered fetal liver gene expression, resulting from CSH deficiency. We sought to examine the impact of CSH deficiency on fetal and placental size earlier in gestation (50 dGA), and to examine placental gene expression at 50 and 135 dGA. At 50 dGA, CSH-deficient pregnancies exhibited a 41% reduction (P ≤ 0.05) in uterine vein concentrations of CSH, and significant (P ≤ 0.05) reductions (≈21%) in both fetal body and liver weights. Placentae harvested at 50 and 135 dGA exhibited reductions in IGF1 and IGF2 mRNA concentrations, along with reductions in SLC2A1 and SLC2A3 mRNA. By contrast, mRNA concentrations for various members of the System A, System L and System y⁺ amino acid transporter families were not significantly impacted. The IUGR observed at the end of the first-third of gestation indicates that the near-term IUGR reported previously, began early in gestation, and may have in part resulted from deficits in the paracrine action of CSH within the placenta. These results provide further compelling evidence for the importance of CSH in the progression and outcome of pregnancy.

Cell-secreted vesicles containing microRNAs as regulators of gamete maturation

Mammalian gamete maturation requires extensive signaling between germ cells and their surrounding somatic cells. In the ovary, theca cells, mural granulosa cells, cumulus cells and the oocyte all secrete factors throughout follicle growth and maturation that are critical for ovulation of a high-quality oocyte with the competence to develop into an embryo. Similarly, maturation of sperm occurs as it transits the epididymis during which epididymal epithelium and sperm exchange secretory factors that are required for sperm to gain motility and fertility. Recent studies in a variety of species have uncovered the presence of cell-secreted vesicles in follicular fluid (microvesicles and exosomes) and epididymal fluid (epididymosomes). Moreover, these cell-secreted vesicles contain small non-coding regulatory RNAs called microRNAs, which can be shuttled between maturing gametes and surrounding somatic cells. Although little is known about the exact mechanism of how microRNAs are loaded into these cell-secreted vesicles or are transferred and modulate gene expression and function in gametes, recent studies clearly suggest that cell-secreted vesicle microRNAs play a role in oocyte and sperm maturation. Moreover, a role for cell-secreted vesicular microRNAs in gamete maturation provides for novel opportunities to modulate and discover new diagnostic markers associated with male or female fertility. This manuscript provides an overview of cell-secreted vesicles in ovarian follicular fluid and epididymal fluid and microRNAs and discusses recent discoveries on the potential function of cell-secreted vesicles as carriers of microRNAs in oocyte and sperm maturation.

Isolation and Analysis of Exosomal MicroRNAs from Ovarian Follicular Fluid

Mammalian ovarian follicular growth is characterized by development of a large fluid filled antrum that separates mural granulosa cells and cumulus cells. Extensive communication between the different cell types is necessary for maturation of a developmentally competent oocyte. Here, we describe an approach for the isolation of cell-secreted exosomes from ovarian follicular fluid, identification of small RNAs (i.e., microRNAs) in exosomes, labeling of exosomes, and examining cell uptake of exosomes by follicular cells.

Development of ovine chorionic somatomammotropin hormone-deficient pregnancies

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is a leading cause of neonatal mortality and morbidity. Chorionic somatomammotropin hormone (CSH), a placenta-specific secretory product found at high concentrations in maternal and fetal circulation throughout gestation, is significantly reduced in human and sheep IUGR pregnancies. The objective of this study was to knock down ovine CSH (oCSH) expression in vivo using lentiviral-mediated short-hairpin RNA to test the hypothesis that oCSH deficiency would result in IUGR of near-term fetal lambs. Three different lentiviral oCSH-targeting constructs were used and compared with pregnancies (n = 8) generated with a scrambled control (SC) lentiviral construct. Pregnancies were harvested at 135 days of gestation. The most effective targeting sequence, "target 6" (tg6; n = 8), yielded pregnancies with significant reductions (P ≤ 0.05) in oCSH mRNA (50%) and protein (38%) concentrations, as well as significant reductions (P ≤ 0.05) in placental (52%) and fetal (32%) weights compared with the SC pregnancies. Fetal liver weights were reduced 41% (P ≤ 0.05), yet fetal liver insulin-like growth factor-I (oIGF1) and -II mRNA concentrations were reduced (P ≤ 0.05) 82 and 71%, respectively, and umbilical artery oIGF1 concentrations were reduced 62% (P ≤ 0.05) in tg6 pregnancies. Additionally, fetal liver oIGF-binding protein (oIGFBP) 2 and oIGFBP3 mRNA concentrations were reduced (P ≤ 0.05), whereas fetal liver oIGFBP1 mRNA concentration was not impacted nor was maternal liver oIGF and oIGFBP mRNA concentrations or uterine artery oIGF1 concentrations (P ≥ 0.10). Based on our results, it appears that oCSH deficiency does result in IUGR, by impacting placental development as well as fetal liver development and function.

Effects of age on follicular fluid exosomal microRNAs and granulosa cell transforming growth factor-β signalling during follicle development in the mare

Age-related decline in fertility is a consequence of low oocyte number and/or low oocyte competence resulting in pregnancy failure. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signalling is a well-studied pathway involved in follicular development and ovulation. Recently, small non-coding RNAs, namely microRNAs (miRNAs), have been demonstrated to regulate several members of this pathway; miRNAs are secreted inside small cell-secreted vesicles called exosomes. The overall goal of the present study was to determine whether altered exosome miRNA content in follicular fluid from old mares is associated with changes in TGF-β signalling in granulosa cells during follicle development. Follicular fluid was collected at deviation (n=6), mid-oestrus (n=6) and preovulation (n=6) for identification of exosomal miRNAs from young (3-12 years) and old (20-26 years) mares. Analysis of selected TGF-β signalling members revealed significantly increased levels of interleukin 6 (IL6) in granulosa cells from mid-oestrus compared with preovulatory follicles, and collagen alpha-2(I) chain (COL1A2) in granulosa cells from deviation compared with preovulatory follicles in young mares. In addition, granulosa cells from old mares had significantly altered levels of DNA-binding protein inhibitor ID-2 (ID2), signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) and cell division cycle 25A (CDC25A). Finally, changes in exosomal miRNA predicted to target selected TGF-β members were identified.

Androgen receptor and histone lysine demethylases in ovine placenta

Sex steroid hormones regulate developmental programming in many tissues, including programming gene expression during prenatal development. While estradiol is known to regulate placentation, little is known about the role of testosterone and androgen signaling in placental development despite the fact that testosterone rises in maternal circulation during pregnancy and in placenta-induced pregnancy disorders. We investigated the role of testosterone in placental gene expression, and focused on androgen receptor (AR). Prenatal androgenization decreased global DNA methylation in gestational day 90 placentomes, and increased placental expression of AR as well as genes involved in epigenetic regulation, angiogenesis, and growth. As AR complexes with histone lysine demethylases (KDMs) to regulate AR target genes in human cancers, we also investigated if the same mechanism is present in the ovine placenta. AR co-immunoprecipitated with KDM1A and KDM4D in sheep placentomes, and AR-KDM1A complexes were recruited to a half-site for androgen response element (ARE) in the promoter region of VEGFA. Androgenized ewes also had increased cotyledonary VEGFA. Finally, in human first trimester placental samples KDM1A and KDM4D immunolocalized to the syncytiotrophoblast, with nuclear KDM1A and KDM4D immunostaining also present in the villous stroma. In conclusion, placental androgen signaling, possibly through AR-KDM complex recruitment to AREs, regulates placental VEGFA expression. AR and KDMs are also present in first trimester human placenta. Androgens appear to be an important regulator of trophoblast differentiation and placental development, and aberrant androgen signaling may contribute to the development of placental disorders.

Regulation of ACVR1 and ID2 by cell-secreted exosomes during follicle maturation in the mare

BACKGROUND

Ovarian follicle growth and maturation requires extensive communication between follicular somatic cells and oocytes. Recently, intercellular cell communication was described involving cell-secreted vesicles called exosomes (50-150 nm), which contain miRNAs and protein, and have been identified in ovarian follicular fluid. The goal of this study was to identify a possible role of exosomes in follicle maturation.

METHODS

Follicle contents were collected from mares at mid-estrous (~35 mm, before induction of follicular maturation) and pre-ovulatory follicles (30-34 h after induction of follicular maturation). A real time PCR screen was conducted to reveal significant differences in the presence of exosomal miRNAs isolated from mid-estrous and pre-ovulatory follicles, and according to bioinformatics analysis these exosomal miRNAs are predicted to target members belonging to the TGFB superfamily, including ACVR1 and ID2. Granulosa cells from pre-ovulatory follicles were cultured and treated with exosomes isolated from follicular fluid. Changes in mRNA and protein were measured by real time PCR and Western blot.

RESULTS

ACVR1 mRNA and protein was detected in granulosa cells at mid-estrous and pre-ovulatory stages, and real time PCR analysis revealed significantly lower levels of ID2 (an ACVR1 target gene) in granulosa cells from pre-ovulatory follicles. Exposure to exosomes from follicular fluid of mid-estrous follicles decreased ID2 levels in granulosa cells. Moreover, exosomes isolated from mid-estrous and pre-ovulatory follicles contain ACVR1 and miR-27b, miR-372, and miR-382 (predicted regulators of ACVR1 and ID2) were capable of altering ID2 levels in pre-ovulatory granulosa cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that exosomes isolated from follicular fluid can regulate members of the TGFB/BMP signaling pathway in granulosa cells, and possibly play a role in regulating follicle maturation.

Role of LIN28A in mouse and human trophoblast cell differentiation

Proper regulation of trophoblast proliferation, differentiation, and function are critical for placenta development and function. The RNA-binding protein, LIN28A, has been well characterized as a potent regulator of differentiation in embryonic stem cells; however, little is known about the function of LIN28A in the placenta. We assessed LIN28A in vitro using mouse trophoblast stem (mTS) cells and human trophoblast cells (ACH-3P). We observed that LIN28A decreased and let-7 miRNA increased when mTS cells were induced to differentiate into mouse trophoblast giant cells (mTGCs) upon the removal of FGF4, heparin and conditioned medium. Similarly, we observed that LIN28A decreased in ACH-3P cells induced to syncytialize with forskolin treatment. To assess LIN28A in vivo we examined Embryonic Day 11.5 mouse placenta and observed abundant LIN28A in the chorioallantoic interface and labyrinth layer, with little LIN28A staining in spongiotrophoblast or differentiated mTGCs. Additionally, shRNA-mediated LIN28A knockdown in ACH-3P cells resulted in increased spontaneous syncytialization, and increased levels of syncytiotrophoblast markers hCG, LGALS13, and ERVW-1 mRNA. Additionally, targeted degradation of LIN28A mRNA increased responsiveness to forskolin-induced differentiation. In contrast, targeted degradation of Lin28a mRNA in mTS cells did not alter cell phenotype when maintained under proliferative culture conditions. Together, these data establish that LIN28A has a functional role in regulating trophoblast differentiation and function, and that loss of LIN28A in human trophoblast is sufficient to induce differentiation, but does not induce differentiation in the mouse.

Cell-secreted vesicles in equine ovarian follicular fluid contain miRNAs and proteins: a possible new form of cell communication within the ovarian follicle

Proper cell communication within the ovarian follicle is critical for the growth and maturation of a healthy oocyte that can be fertilized and develop into an embryo. Cell communication within the follicle involves many signaling molecules and is affected by maternal age. Recent studies indicate that cell communication can be mediated through secretion and uptake of small membrane-enclosed vesicles. The goals of this study were to 1) identify cell-secreted vesicles (microvesicles and exosomes) containing miRNAs and proteins within ovarian follicular fluid and 2) determine if miRNA level differs in exosomes isolated from follicular fluid in young compared to old mares. We demonstrate the presence of vesicles resembling microvesicles and exosomes in ovarian follicular fluid using transmission electron microscopy and CD63-positive and RNA containing vesicles using flow cytometry. Moreover, proteomics analysis reveals that follicular fluid-isolated exosomes contain both known exosomal proteins and proteins not previously reported in isolated exosomes. MicroRNAs were detected in microvesicle and exosomes preparations isolated from follicular fluid by real-time PCR analysis. Uptake of fluorescent-labeled microvesicles by granulosa cells was examined using in vitro and in vivo approaches. MicroRNA expression profiling reveals that miRNAs in microvesicle and exosome preparations isolated from follicular fluid also are present within surrounding granulosa and cumulus cells. These studies revealed that cell communication within the mammalian ovarian follicle may involve transfer of bioactive material by microvesicles and exosomes. Finally, miRNAs present in exosomes from ovarian follicular fluid varied with the age of the mare, and a number of different miRNAs were detected in young vs. old mare follicular fluid.

Expression of miRNAs in ovine fetal gonads: potential role in gonadal differentiation

BACKGROUND

Gonadal differentiation in the mammalian fetus involves a complex dose-dependent genetic network. Initiation and progression of fetal ovarian and testicular pathways are accompanied by dynamic expression patterns of thousands of genes. We postulate these expression patterns are regulated by small non-coding RNAs called microRNAs (miRNAs). The aim of this study was to identify the expression of miRNAs in mammalian fetal gonads using sheep as a model.

METHODS

We determined the expression of 128 miRNAs by real time PCR in early-gestational (gestational day (GD) 42) and mid-gestational (GD75) sheep ovaries and testes. Expression data were further examined and validated by bioinformatic analysis.

RESULTS

Expression analysis revealed significant differences between ovaries and testes among 24 miRNAs at GD42, and 43 miRNAs at GD75. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that a number of differentially expressed miRNAs are predicted to target genes known to be important in mammalian gonadal development, including ESR1, CYP19A1, and SOX9. In situ hybridization revealed miR-22 localization within fetal testicular cords. As estrogen signaling is important in human and sheep ovarian development, these data indicate that miR-22 is involved in repressing estrogen signaling within fetal testes.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on our results we postulate that gene expression networks underlying fetal gonadal development are regulated by miRNAs.

Genetic reprogramming of transcription factor ap-2gamma in bovine somatic cell nuclear transfer preimplantation embryos and placentomes

Bovine somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) efficiency remains very low despite a tremendous amount of research devoted to its improvement over the past decade. Frequent early and mid-gestational losses are commonly accompanied by placental abnormalities. A transcription factor, activating protein AP-2gamma, has been shown to be necessary for proper placental development in the mouse. We first evaluated the expression of the gene coding for AP-2gamma (Tfap2c) in several bovine fibroblast donor cell lines and found it was not expressed. Subsequently we determined the expression profile of Tfap2c in oocytes and various stages of preimplantation in vitro fertilized (IVF) embryos. Tfap2c was undetectable in oocytes and early embryos, and was detectable at relatively high levels in morula and blastocyst IVF embryos. The lack of expression in oocytes and donor cells means Tfap2c must be induced in the zygote at the morula stage in properly reprogrammed embryos. SCNT embryos expressed Tfap2c at the eight-cell stage, 2 days earlier than control embryos. Control embryos first expressed Tfap2c at the morula stage, and at this stage Tfap2c was significantly lower in the SCNT embryos. No differences in expression were detected at the blastocyst stage. To determine whether Tfap2c was properly reprogrammed in the placenta of SCNT pregnancies, we evaluated its expression in cotyledons and caruncles of SCNT and control pregnancies between days 55 and 90 gestation. Expression of Tfap2c in caruncles significantly increased between days 55 and 90, while expression in cotyledons was relatively consistent over that same period. Expression levels in SCNT tissues were not different from controls. This data indicates Tfap2c expression is altered in early preimplantation SCNT embryos, which may have developmental consequences resulting from genes influenced by Tfap2c, but expression was not different at the blastocyst stage and in placentomes.

Disruption of epidermal specific gene expression and delayed skin development in AP-2 gamma mutant mice

Summary Sentence: Conditional ablation of AP-2 gamma results in a delay in skin development and abnormal expression of p63, K14, K1, filaggrin, repetin and secreted Ly6/Plaur domain containing 1, key genes required for epidermal development and differentiation. The development of the epidermis, a stratified squamous epithelium, is dependent on the regulated differentiation of keratinocytes. Differentiation begins with the initiation of stratification, a process tightly controlled through proper gene expression. AP-2 gamma is expressed in skin and previous research suggested a pathway where p63 gene induction results in increased expression of AP-2 gamma, which in turn is responsible for induction of K14. This study uses a conditional gene ablation model to further explore the role of AP-2 gamma in skin development. Mice deficient for AP-2 gamma exhibited delayed expression of p63, K14, and K1, key genes required for development and differentiation of the epidermis. In addition, microarray analysis of E16.5 skin revealed delayed expression of additional late epidermal differentiation genes: filaggrin, repetin and secreted Ly6/Plaur domain containing 1, in mutant mice. The genetic delay in skin development was further confirmed by a functional delay in the formation of an epidermal barrier. These results document an important role for AP-2 gamma in skin development, and reveal the existence of regulatory factors that can compensate for AP-2 gamma in its absence.

Heat shock protein 1 and the mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 pathway are important for mouse trophoblast stem cell differentiation

Differentiation of trophoblast cells is a critical process for the proper establishment of the placenta and is, therefore, necessary to maintain embryonic development. Trophoblast stem (TS) cells grown in culture can differentiate into different trophoblast subtypes in vitro mimicking normal trophoblast cell differentiation. Therefore, TS cells are a valuable model system that can be used to elucidate genetic factors that regulate trophoblast cell differentiation. Several transcription factors, when analyzed by targeted gene mutation in mice, have resulted in embryonic lethality due to placental defects and, more specifically, defects of the trophoblast lineages. These studies have helped improve our knowledge about trophoblast cell differentiation, but much is still unknown about the specific mechanisms involved. This study uses TS cell culture to detect proteins with differential expression in proliferating and differentiating TS cells in order to identify proteins with potential roles in the differentiation process. We identified four proteins with differential expression: dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase1 (DDAH1), keratin 8, keratin 18, and HSPB1 (also known as heat shock protein 25, HSP25). Further investigation confirmed the presence of HSPB1 protein during in vitro TS cell differentiation. In addition, we confirmed that phosphorylation of HSPB1 and MAP kinase-activated protein kinase 2 (MAPKAPK2) increased in TS cells during differentiation. Inhibition of MAPK14 (also known as p38 MAPK) resulted in a reduction of HSPB1 phosphorylation and an increase in cell death during TS cell differentiation. These results suggest that HSPB1 and the MAPK14 pathway are important during TS cell differentiation.

Specific integrin subunits in bovine oocytes, including novel sequences for alpha 6 and beta 3 subunits

Integrins facilitate attachment of cells to the extra-cellular matrix, often binding the arginine-glycine-aspartic acid tri-peptide motif, thus facilitating cell migration, mediating cell-cell adhesion, linking the extracellular matrix (ECM) with cytoskeletal elements, and acting as signaling molecules. Adhesion activates signaling mechanisms that regulate integrin function, cytoskeletal assembly, cell behavior, and protein synthesis. Immunofluorescence was used to determine the presence of integrin alpha and beta subunits on the surface of bovine oocytes using a panel of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific for alphaL, alphaM, alphaX, alphaV, alpha2, alpha4, alpha6, beta1, beta2, and beta3 antigens, with multiple antibodies for each subunit. Confocal microscopy indicated the presence of alphaV, alpha6, alpha4, alpha2, ss1, and ss3 integrin subunits on the plasma membrane of bovine oocytes. The presence of these subunits was verified by RT-PCR analysis using primers designed based on known gene sequences of bovine integrin subunits, or by using sequence information using bovine expressed sequence tags (EST) compared with known human and murine integrin subunit gene sequence information. Previously unpublished sequence information for bovine alpha6 and beta3 integrins was determined. The presence of these integrin subunits on the bovine oocyte vitelline membrane supports the hypothesis that sperm-oocyte interactions in the bovine are mediated by integrins.

West Nile virus infection of the placenta

Intrauterine infection of fetuses with West Nile virus (WNV) has been implicated in cases of women infected during pregnancy. Infection of timed-pregnant mice on 5.5, 7.5, and 9.5 days post-coitus (dpc) resulted in fetal infection. Infection of dams on 11.5 and 14.5 dpc resulted in little and no fetal infection, respectively. Pre-implantation embryos in culture were also infected with WNV after the blastocyst stage and the formation of trophectoderm. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression was observed in a trophoblast stem (TS) cell line after infection with a GFP-expressing WNV construct. However, no fluorescence was observed in differentiated trophoblast giant cell (TGC) cultures. GFP fluorescence was present in TGC cultures if infected TS cells were induced to differentiate. These results suggest that embryos are susceptible to WNV infection after the formation of the trophectoderm around 3.5 dpc through the formation of the functional placenta around 10.5 dpc.

Treatment of West Nile virus-infected mice with reactive immunoglobulin reduces fetal titers and increases dam survival

The objectives of this study were to determine if injection of West Nile virus (WNV) into timed-pregnant mice would result in fetal infection and if administration of WNV-reactive immunoglobulin would increase dam survival and reduce fetal viral titers. Dams injected on 7.5 days post-coitus (dpc) had detectable viral titers in the placenta 10.5dpc with a mean titer of 10(4.9) 50% cell-culture infectious doses per gram of tissue (CCID(50)/g tissue). The mean placental titer increased to 10(8.6)CCID(50)/g tissue at 12.5dpc. Infectious virus was detectable 12.5dpc in 10 of 10 fetuses with a mean titer of 10(7.5)CCID(50)/g tissue. Treatment of dams (challenged with WNV on 7.5dpc) with WNV-reactive human immunoglobulin (Ig) on 8.5 and 9.5dpc resulted in a significant reduction of virus in fetuses as compared with non-reactive human Ig-treated females on 12.5dpc (P< or =0.001). Treatment also resulted in survival of dams to term. Treatment of dams with WNV-reactive human Ig on 12.5 and 13.5dpc also resulted in reduction of viral titer on 14.5dpc, indicating that later treatment may also be efficacious. This suggests that Ig treatment may be useful in treating fetal WNV infection in women.

Bovine nuclear transfer embryo development using cells derived from a cloned fetus

Many different cell types have been used to generate nuclear transfer embryos and fetuses. However, little is known about the potential of fibroblasts derived from a nuclear transfer fetus as donor cells for nuclear transfer. The ability of cloned fetuses or animals to be cloned themselves is of great interest in determining whether successive generations of clones remain normal or accumulate genetic or phenotypic abnormalities. We generated a bovine fibroblast cell line from a cloned fetus, that continued to divide beyond 120 days (94 doublings,18 passages) in continuous culture. As long-term survival of cells in culture is a desirable characteristic for use in transgenic cell production, passage 2 and 18 cells were compared as donor cells for nuclear transfer (NT). When cells from passage 2 (2 weeks in culture) and passage 18 (4 months in culture) were used for nuclear transfer, there was no significant difference in development rate to blastocyst (35.4 versus 44.6%, P=0.07). A greater proportion of late passage cells were in G0/G1 whether under serum-fed (64 versus 56%, P<0.01) or serum-starved (95 versus 88%, P<0.01) culture conditions. Following embryo transfer, equivalent day 30 pregnancy rates were observed for each group (P 2: 2/19 versus P 18: 2/13). A slightly retarded fetus was surgically removed at day 56 and the remaining three fetuses died in utero by day 60 of gestation. Our results show that fibroblast cells derived from regenerated cloned fetuses are capable of both in vitro and in vivo development. The longevity of this regenerated cell line would allow more time for genetic manipulations and then to identify stable transfected cells prior to their use as NT donor cells. Although no live fetuses were produced in this study the results provide encouraging data to show that a cloned fetus can itself be recloned to produce another identical cloned fetus. Further studies on this and other recloned fetuses are necessary to determine whether the failure to produce live offspring was a result of inadequate sample size or due to the cell type selected.

Evidence for placental abnormality as the major cause of mortality in first-trimester somatic cell cloned bovine fetuses

The production of cloned animals is, at present, an inefficient process. This study focused on the fetal losses that occur between Days 30-90 of gestation. Fetal and placental characteristics were studied from Days 30-90 of gestation using transrectal ultrasonography, maternal pregnancy specific protein b (PSPb) levels, and postslaughter collection of fetal tissue. Pregnancy rates at Day 30 were similar for recipient cows carrying nuclear transfer (NT) and control embryos (45% [54/120] vs. 58% [11/19]), although multiple NT embryos were often transferred into recipients. From Days 30-90, 82% of NT fetuses died, whereas all control pregnancies remained viable. Crown-rump (CR) length was less in those fetuses that were destined to die before Day 90, but no significant difference was found between the CR lengths of NT and control fetuses that survived to Day 90. Maternal PSPb levels at Days 30 and 50 of gestation were not predictive of fetal survival to Day 90. The placentas of six cloned and four control (in vivo or in vitro fertilized) bovine pregnancies were compared between Days 35 and 60 of gestation. Two cloned placentas showed rudimentary development, as indicated by flat, cuboidal trophoblastic epithelium and reduced vascularization, whereas two others possessed a reduced number of barely discernable cotyledonary areas. The remaining two cloned placentas were similar to the controls, although one contained hemorrhagic cotyledons. Poor viability of cloned fetuses during Days 35-60 was associated with either rudimentary or marginal chorioallantoic development. Our findings suggest that future research should focus on factors that promote placental and vascular growth and on fetomaternal interactions that promote placental attachment and villous formation.

Genetic reprogramming of lactate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, and phosphofructokinase mRNA in bovine nuclear transfer embryos produced using bovine fibroblast cell nuclei

Adult animal cloning has progressed to allow the production of offspring cloned from adult cells, however many cloned calves die prenatally or shortly after birth. This study examined the expression of three important metabolic enzymes, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), citrate synthase, and phosphofructokinase (PFK), to determine if their detection in nuclear transfer (NT) embryos mimics that determined for in vitro produced embryos. A day 40 nuclear transfer produced fetus derived from an adult cell line was collected and fetal fibroblast cultures were established and maintained. Reconstructed NT embryos were then produced from this cell line, and RT-PCR was used to evaluate mRNA reprogramming. All three mRNAs encoding these enzymes were detected in the regenerated fetal fibroblast cell line. Detection patterns were first determined for IVF produced embryos (1-cell, 2-cell, 6-8 cell, morula, and blastocyst stages) to compare with their detection in NT embryos. PFK has three subunits: PFK-L, PFK-M, and PFK-P. PFK-L and PFK-P were not detected in bovine oocytes. PFK subunits were not detected in 6-8 cell embryos but were detected in blastocysts. Results from NT embryo RT-PCR demonstrated that PFK was not detected in 8-cell NT embryos but was detected in NT blastocysts indicating that proper nuclear reprogramming had occurred. Citrate synthase was detected in oocytes and throughout development to the blastocyst stage in both bovine IVF and NT embryos. LDH-A and LDH-B were detected in bovine oocytes and in all stages of IVF and NT embryos examined up to the blastocyst stage. A third subunit, LDH-C was not detected at the blastocyst stage in IVF or NT embryos but was detected in all earlier stages and in mature oocytes. In addition, LDH-C mRNA was detected in gonad isolated from the NT and an in vivo produced control fetus. These results indicate that the three metabolic enzymes maintain normal expression patterns and therefore must be properly reprogrammed following nuclear transfer.