Mononuclear cell subsets in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid during Dictyocaulus viviparus infection of calves: a potential role for gamma/delta TCR-expressing cells in airway immune responses?

Mononuclear cell populations in the lungs of calves infected with Dictyocaulus viviparus were studied during primary infection and reinfection in order to identify cells involved in development of protective immunity to parasitic bronchitis. Three groups of calves were either inoculated with 500 third-stage larvae at both weeks 0 and 10 (n = 6), inoculated only at week 10 (n = 6), or remained uninfected (n = 3). The animals were monitored weekly by collection of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), blood and faeces. Among mononuclear BALF-cell populations, the gamma/delta TCR-expressing cells showed a pronounced transient increase in proportion as well as in relative cell size 2 weeks post primary infection, whereas CD4-, CD8-, Ig- and CD14-expressing cells showed no significant differences related to the infection. The increase in gamma/delta TCR-expressing cells coincided with significantly increased proportions of eosinophils and recovery of adult worms in BALF. After reinfection, gamma/delta TCR-expressing cells increased again, but not until week 3 post inoculation, whereas eosinophils were increased by week 2 and reached higher levels than after primary infection. After reinfection, establishment of D. viviparus was less successful than after primary infection. In conclusion, these results indicate a role for gamma/delta TCR-expressing lymphocytes in the pathogenesis of D. viviparus infection.

Indirect transmission of bovine viral diarrhoea virus at calving and during the postparturient period

Two trials were designed to investigate whether bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) could be transmitted after the birth of persistently infected calves, even if they were removed immediately after birth. In trial 1, 11 calves were actively exposed to fetal fluids and uterine lochia collected from cows that had delivered calves persistently infected with type 1 BVDV. One calf that was exposed to a sample taken on the day of calving seroconverted. In trial 2, six calves were housed in stables where persistently infected calves were being born and then removed immediately from their dams and from the stable unit within two to three hours. One of four calves in close contact with the cows after delivery seroconverted and one of two calves housed within the same stable unit became infected.

Experimental Infection of Cows with Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus in Early Pregnancy - Findings in Serum and Foetal Fluids

Nineteen pregnant cows were experimentally infected with bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) between day 74 and 81 of pregnancy. All cows became infected and developed serum antibodies. Sixteen of the cows delivered persistently infected (PI) offspring, whereas the remaining three gave birth to calves with detectable serum antibodies and free from BVDV. The 16 cows with PI foetuses developed higher levels of antibodies in serum during pregnancy than did their three peers carrying non-PI calves. Multivariate analysis showed that the antibody levels in these two groups of cows were significantly different from day 135 of pregnancy. Foetal fluid was successfully collected from 18 of the 19 infected cows and from five uninfected control cows between 10 and 24 days before delivery by use of a percutaneous, blind puncture technique. No negative effects were observed in the cows or their offspring. BVDV was isolated and detected with an immunoperoxidase test in foetal fluid from 13 of the 16 cows carrying PI foetuses, and from 15 of the cows when a quantitative fluorescent polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique was used. The negative sample in the PCR assay was positive for BVDV antibodies. The number of viral copies per microlitre in foetal fluids varied between 103 and 1080 in the positive samples. All samples taken from the cows carrying non-PI foetuses were negative for BVDV in both assays. In this experiment, examination of either serum or foetal fluids could identify the cows carrying a PI foetus. Examination of serum for BVDV antibodies was a reliable indicator of a PI foetus if the serum was collected during the last 2 months of pregnancy. For examination of foetal fluids, both viral and serological analyses should be performed. For viral analysis, PCR should be the test of choice. High levels of BVDV antibodies in conjunction with a negative result in the PCR may be indicative of a false-negative virus result. Further experience with the method of collection of foetal fluids is necessary for evaluation of its safety. Investigation of pregnant cows in order to discover a PI offspring before it is born could be a useful tool in control and eradication of BVDV.

International collaboration in mass disasters involving foreign nationals within the EU: medico-legal investigation of Finnish victims of the Milan Linate airport SAS SK 686 aircraft accident on 8 October 2001

Identification of and investigation into the cause of death of foreign nationals in mass disasters are generally conducted according to the jurisdiction of the country in which the disaster occurs. However, such identification can be achieved only through co-operation with the authorities of the victims' countries of residence. On October 8th 2001 at Linate airport in Milan, Italy, an MD87 SAS airplane with 110 crew members and passengers on board collided on the ground with a Cessna Citation II jet with 2 pilots and 2 passengers. The plane then caught fire after having crashed into an airport baggage hangar causing the death of 4 other victims among the groundstaff. The accident claimed a total of 118 victims of 9 nationalities. Based on our experience from investigation of the Finnish victims, we explore how current national legislations of the EU member states and varying compliance with existing recommendations may influence the medico-legal investigation of a mass disaster. Legislative measures and further harmonisation of medico-legal procedures in connection with mass disasters within the EU are needed.

The acute phase response in calves experimentally infected with bovine viral diarrhoea virus and/or Mannheimia haemolytica

The aim of this investigation was to study differences and similarities in the acute phase response of calves experimentally infected in the respiratory tract with either bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) or Mannheima haemolytica (Mh), or with a combination of both (BVDV/Mh). A non-inoculated control group was also included. The acute phase response was measured by serum or plasma concentrations of the acute phase proteins (APPs) haptoglobin, serum amyloid A (SAA) and fibrinogen, and of cortisol, prostaglandin F2alpha-metabolite and interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) activity. Clinical symptoms were also recorded and were most severe in the BVDV/Mh group. The symptoms were mild to moderate in the BVDV group, while none, or very mild symptoms were observed in the Mh group. In all inoculated groups, a significant acute phase response was observed, with elevated values of haptoglobin, SAA and fibrinogen, while the control group remained unaffected throughout the study. In general, the magnitude of the response was similar, but the duration of elevated concentrations of APPs was significantly longer in the BVDV/Mh group than in the BVDV group, reflecting the duration of the clinical symptoms. However, in the single infection groups, the APP response and the clinical symptoms were not correlated. The IFN-alpha activity increased in all BVDV-inoculated animals, but no response in cortisol and PGF2alpha-metabolite concentrations was observed after infection. Basal levels of serum concentrations of haptoglobin, SAA and fibrinogen were established and may be used for evaluating calf health in herds. The duration of elevated haptoglobin, SAA and fibrinogen values did not differ significantly within groups indicating that their value as indicator of disease is equal.

Transmission of bovine viral diarrhoea virus by unhygienic vaccination procedures, ambient air, and from contaminated pens

Knowing how bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) infection spreads via indirect contacts is required in order to plan large-scale eradication schemes against BVDV. In this study, susceptible calves were exposed to BVDV by an unhygienic vaccination procedure, by ambient air and from contaminated pens. Primary BVDV infection was observed in two calves vaccinated with a vaccine against Trichophyton spp that had been contaminated by smearing nasal secretion from a persistently infected (PI) calf on the rubber membrane and penetrating it twice with a hypodermic needle. Four other calves, housed in pairs in two separate housing units near a PI calf for one week--at distances of 1.5 and 10 m, respectively--became infected without having direct contact with the PI calf. Furthermore, two of the three calves housed in a pen directly after removal of a PI calf, but without the pen being cleaned and disinfected, also contracted primary BVDV infection, whereas two calves that entered such a pen four days after removal of another PI calf, did not. In herds where most animals are seronegative to BVDV, indirect airborne transmission of BVDV or contact with a contaminated housing interior may be an important factor in spreading of the virus, once a PI animal is present. However, the spreading of BVDV within herds can be stopped by identifying and removing PI animals and also by ensuring that susceptible breeding animals do not become infected during this procedure. In contrast, injectables contaminated with BVDV may prove to be a significant vector for spreading the infection, not only within an infected herd but, most importantly, also between herds. In our opinion, it is questionable whether medicine bottles, once opened and used within an infected herd, should be used in other herds. In any case, prior knowledge of a herd's BVDV status will help practising veterinarians and technicians to undertake appropriate hygienic measures.

Acrylamide and N-methylolacrylamide poisoning in a herd of Charolais crossbreed cattle

Seven beef cattle from a herd accidentally exposed to acrylamide and N-methylolacrylamide while grazing were observed for eight months. They showed clinical signs of impaired nerve function, mainly in the hindlegs, with varying degrees of weakness and ataxia. The animals were irritable, nervous and hypersensitive to touch. Both pupils of the most badly affected animal were dilated and it had poor pupillary light responses; it also showed signs of axonal neuropathy. Selected haematological and clinical chemistry variables were normal. The severity of the neurological signs was correlated with the concentrations of haemoglobin adducts of acrylamides. The animals recovered substantially after their exposure. The gestations of four of the animals which were in calf proceeded normally.

Insemination of susceptible heifers with semen from a non-viraemic bull with persistent bovine virus diarrhoea virus infection localized in the testes

Bulls shedding bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) in semen and simultaneously having a high concentration of circulating antibodies may cause reproductive problems and spread the viral infection within cattle populations. To investigate this in detail, three heifers were inseminated with BVDV-infected semen from a non-viraemic, seropositive Holstein-Friesian bull, named 'Cumulus'. One control heifer was inseminated with semen from a healthy bull that was free of BVDV. All four heifers remained clinically healthy throughout the experiment. The conception succeeded in the control animal and in two of the three heifers inseminated with semen containing BVDV. The heifer with the failed conception was the only one that became systemically infected with BVDV. This animal was deemed non-pregnant by ultrasonic examination on day 34 after insemination and showed no signs of subsequent oestrus during the entire experimental period. At slaughter, 42 days after insemination, there were no histopathological changes in the ovaries and virus was not detected in ovarian tissue. The fact that seronegative dams served with semen from persistently infected bulls have occasionally produced persistently infected calves together with the present findings and the fact that non-viraemic, seropositive bulls can constantly shed BVDV, suggest that the use of semen from such bulls in BVDV-free herds could have far-reaching consequences, especially if it led to the birth of persistently infected (P1) calves.

Hip arthroscopy in osteoarthritis. A review of 68 patients

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

A few studies have investigated therapeutic effect of hip arthroscopy in osteoarthritis, and therefore the use of hip arthroscopy in osteoarthritis has remained controversial. The aim of this study was to evaluate diagnostic and therapeutic aspects of hip arthroscopy in primary osteoarthritis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

During a time period from 1995 to 1999, a total of 68 patients had an arthroscopic evaluation of primary hip osteoarthritis at the Päijät-Häme Central Hospital, Lahti, Finland. The mean (range) follow-up was 1.3 (0.3 to 4) years. Arthroscopy was diagnostic in 38 (56%), while six (9%) patients received either long-lasting anaesthetic or prednisolone, and in 24 (35%) debridement was possible. Partial synovectomy was performed in two (3%).

RESULTS

Three months after the arthroscopy, 49 (72%) patients reported that their hip pain had decreased. One year after the arthroscopy, 18 (26%) patients stated that their hip pain was less pronounced than before the arthroscopy. The severity of hip osteoarthritis in preoperative x-rays correlated significantly (p = 0.035) with the subjective result: the milder the osteoarthritis, the more often patients reported that their hip pain had decreased after arthroscopy. No association was observed between age, sex, modified Outerbridge grade of chondropathy, or whether a debridement was done or not and the symptomatic relief after the arthroscopy.

CONCLUSIONS

Hip arthroscopy with or without debridement of loose cartilage may, at least temporarily, reduce the pain of mild or moderate osteoarthritis of the hip. Still, repeated arthroscopies had no therapeutic effect.

Osteosynthesis and allogeneic bone grafting in complex osteoporotic fractures

Thirty patients with osteoporotic fractures were treated operatively. An allogeneic bone transplant was used in combination with a conventional osteosynthesis in each patient. The bone graft was pulverized in a bone mill and used as a substitute graft to fill the bone defect, add stability, and enhance bone union. Fractures healed without complications in 20 patients. The osteosynthesis failed in 4 patients. The fracture failed to unite in an additional 3 patients. One deep infection occurred. A biopsy taken from the allogeneic bone at plate removal after fracture union demonstrated mature bone and new bone formation. The use of pulverized allograft bone for large bone defects in patients with osteoporotic fractures yields acceptable results with no adverse effects.

Lack of virus transmission from bovine viral diarrhoea virus infected calves to susceptible peers

None of 14 calves not previously exposed to BVDV became infected after being forced to have nose-to-nose contact with a group of 5 calves primarily infected with BVDV. These were 5 male calves primarily infected with a type I BVDV strain, after nose-to-nose contact with a persistently viraemic calf. All 5 became infected and were clinically affected. They were slightly depressed and pyretic at 8-9 days post-infection, with a body temperature of up to 41.6 degrees C, but no medical treatment was required. Seroconversions to BVDV were detected in these calves at 14 to 21 days post-infection. The 14 healthy calves, proved to be free from BVD virus--as well as antibodies, were introduced 2 by 2 into the group of 5 primarily infected calves on days 4, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42 after the 5 calves had been in contact with the persistently BVDV-infected calf. Each pair of calves stayed within the primarily infected group for 2 days. None of these 14 calves seroconverted to BVDV.

Biodegradable screw fixation of the syndesmosis together with metallic osteosynthesis. Preliminary experience of 7 ankles

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

In ankle fractures with separation of the tibiofibular mortise a metallic syndesmosis screw is generally used. As a rule, this transfixing screw is removed by a separate operation 6 to 8 weeks later. Usually the fracture fixation implants are removed by a second operation later on. In order to eliminate separate removal of the transfixing screw, we used a biodegradable syndesmosis screw in a pilot clinical study.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We treated seven consecutive patients with malleolar fractures and separation of the syndesmosis by an ordinary metallic plating and screw fixation of the fractures and biodegradable polyglycolic acid (PGA) screw transfixation of the syndesmosis.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

All the patients ended up with an acceptable result and stable ankle mortise. One of the ankles, which was the only one fixed by two transfixing PGA screws instead of one screw, had transient sinus formation and intraosseal osteolysis. The final result was good also in this case. The ankle mortise can be fixed safely by biodegradable screws in connection with metallic osteosynthesis of malleolar fractures. Thus a separate removal of the transfixing material is possible to eliminate.

Lack of virus transmission from bovine viral diarrhoea virus infected calves to susceptible peers

None of 14 calves not previously exposed to BVDV became infected after being forced to have nose-to-nose contact with a group of 5 calves primarily infected with BVDV. These were 5 male calves primarily infected with a type I BVDV strain, after nose-to-nose contact with a persistently viraemic calf. All 5 became infected and were clinically affected. They were slightly depressed and pyretic at 8-9 days post-infection, with a body temperature of up to 41.6 degrees C, but no medical treatment was required. Seroconversions to BVDV were detected in these calves at 14 to 21 days post-infection. The 14 healthy calves, proved to be free from BVD virus--as well as antibodies, were introduced 2 by 2 into the group of 5 primarily infected calves on days 4, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42 after the 5 calves had been in contact with the persistently BVDV-infected calf. Each pair of calves stayed within the primarily infected group for 2 days. None of these 14 calves seroconverted to BVDV.

Calcium chloride sprays decrease physiological disorders following long-term cold storage of apple

Field experiments were carried out at the Horticultural Research Institute, and in five commercial apple orchards, located in southwest Finland including the Aland Islands during 1994 and 1995. The experimental cultivars were Melba, Raike, Red Atlas, Akerö, Aroma, and Lobo. The treatments were untreated control and preharvest calcium chloride (CaCl2) sprays at Ca 2.0 g/l. Fruit samples were stored for two to six months at 2-4 degrees C and 85-95% RH. The percentage of the incidence of physiological disorders of stored apples was scored. Fruit macronutrients, firmness, diameter and juice titratable acidity and percentage of soluble solids were determined. Only a few nutrient effects in the flesh of the apple cultivars were a result of CaCl2 sprayings. Preharvest CaCl2 sprays increased fruit firmness and the titratable acidity but decreased soluble solids, soluble solids/titratable acidity ratio, and the incidence of physiological storage disorders of some cultivars. When looking at the mean of all cultivars, CaCl2 sprayings increased titratable acidity and decreased soluble solids/titratable acidity ratio after four months of storage during 1995 and reduced the incidence of physiological disorders after three months of storage during 1994 and after four months of storage in 1995.

Complications after treatment of proximal femoral fractures

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The number of fractures of the proximal femur is increasing faster than the number of elderly people. The aim of the study was to record all complications after operative treatment of proximal femoral fractures in order to reduce the incidence of these complications in the future.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The files of 334 patients with proximal femoral fractures were retrospectively analyzed. The number of all general and operative complications were recorded.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The primary mortality was 8 percent. The most common general complication was a thromboembolic one. Local complications were recorded in 66 cases. Thirty-eight percent of femoral neck fractures treated by internal fixation were complicated. Increased attention should be focused on the sufficient antithrombosis prophylaxis, which should be continued at least during the whole convalescence period at the hospital. It remains to be clarified, if improved technical skill may improve the results of femoral neck osteosynthesis, which in this group of patients appeared far from satisfactory. The development of post-operative care and selection of right patients to an appropriate rehabilitation program is perhaps the most important factor today, in order to reduce complications in general.

Relationship between the levels of antibodies to bovine viral diarrhoea virus in bulk tank milk and the prevalence of cows exposed to the virus

A positive relationship was found between the prevalence of cows in a herd which were antibody-positive for bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) and the level of antibodies to the virus in bulk tank milk as determined by an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In herds with an ELISA absorbance value of up to 0.20 there were very few or no antibody-positive cows, whereas in herds with an ELISA absorbance value of at least 0.81, 87 to 100 per cent of the lactating cows were antibody-positive to BVDV. An analysis of the level of antibodies to BVDV in milk samples from Sweden and Finland showed that of 123 Swedish herds, 83.7 per cent had detectable antibodies to BVDV in their bulk milk whereas only 3.1 per cent of the 291 Finnish samples were antibody-positive. The incidence of BVDV infection in 105 herds in one area of Sweden was determined by analysing two samples of bulk tank milk taken one year apart. The infection had apparently occurred recently in five of these dairy herds.

Winter dysentery diagnosed by farmers in dairy herds in central Sweden: incidence, clinical signs and protective immunity

The occurrence of winter dysentery, diagnosed by farmers and defined as an outbreak of diarrhoea among at least 30 per cent of adult cattle in a herd, was monitored in 256 dairy herds in an area of central Sweden. The cumulative incidence of winter dysentery between April 1988 and March 1989 was 28.5 per cent. A typical outbreak lasted for one to two weeks and 74 per cent of the outbreaks occurred between November and January. A decrease in milk yield was reported in 90 per cent of the affected herds and the cows showed respiratory signs in 57 per cent of them. There was a significant (P < 0.05) association between the occurrence of fever and coughing. In 31 per cent of the outbreaks the farmer also noticed diarrhoea among the calves. One-third of the affected herds had experienced an outbreak within the previous four years and 18 per cent had at least one further outbreak during the following two years. There was a significantly (P < 0.05) lower disease score in herds that had had an outbreak within the previous four years than in herds which had had a less recent or no previous outbreak, indicating the development of temporary immunity to the causative agent.

Bovine coronavirus as the causative agent of winter dysentery: serological evidence

Sera from 9 dairy herds with epizootic enteritis (winter dysentery) were examined for antibodies to bovine coronavirus (BCV) and bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV). Cows in 8 of the 9 herds seroconverted to BCV alone, while the animals in the ninth herd, which showed severe symptoms of the disease, seroconverted both to BCV and BVDV. The BCV antibodies, which were present in high titres 1 year postinfection, were transferred to the offspring via the colostrum and were then detectable in sera of calves until these were approximately 5 months old. A serological survey of 549 Swedish heifers showed that 61% of the animals were reactors to BCV. The prevalence of seroreactors to BCV was equally distributed over Sweden but was commonly either high or low in herds. In conclusion, BCV is commonly detected in animals suffering from winter dysentery. A co-infection with BVDV appears to aggravate the disease.

Determination of level of antibodies to bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) in bulk tank milk as a tool in the diagnosis and prophylaxis of BVDV infections in dairy herds

An indirect ELISA has been evaluated for determination of the level of antibodies to BVDV in individual milk samples and recently in bulk tank milk from dairy herds. As part of an epidemiological study, bulk milk and individual milk samples from all cows in 15 dairy herds were analysed for antibodies to BVDV two times one year apart. There was an excellent correlation between the level of antibodies in the bulk tank milk and the prevalence of BVDV antibody positive cows. The mean prevalence of BVDV antibody positive cows in the 15 dairy herds was 45.5% (188/413) at the first sampling and 46.2% (191/413) one year later. Seven of the herds had no, or only a low number of antibody positive cows. In contrast, between 52 to 100% of the cows in seven other herds were antibody positive to BVDV. In the 15th herd all cows without antibodies at the first sampling were antibody positive to BVDV one year later, indicating a recently introduced BVDV infection in this herd. Analysis of bulk milk samples for BVDV antibodies is now routinely used in Sweden as a tool in diagnosis and prophylaxis of BVDV infections in dairy herds. The importance and advantages of this diagnostic technique, that has made it possible to establish BVDV-free dairy herds, is discussed.

Bovine coronavirus as the causative agent of winter dysentery: serological evidence

Sera from 9 dairy herds with epizootic enteritis (winter dysentery) were examined for antibodies to bovine coronavirus (BCV) and bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV). Cows in 8 of the 9 herds seroconverted to BCV alone, while the animals in the ninth herd, which showed severe symptoms of the disease, seroconverted both to BCV and BVDV. The BCV antibodies, which were present in high titres 1 year postinfection, were transferred to the offspring via the colostrum and were then detectable in sera of calves until these were approximately 5 months old. A serological survey of 549 Swedish heifers showed that 61% of the animals were reactors to BCV. The prevalence of seroreactors to BCV was equally distributed over Sweden but was commonly either high or low in herds. In conclusion, BCV is commonly detected in animals suffering from winter dysentery. A co-infection with BVDV appears to aggravate the disease.

Evaluation of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies to bovine virus diarrhoea virus in milk

The present study shows that milk is an appropriate source for detection of seroreactors to bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV). There was close agreement between antibody titres in serum and in skim milk, as determined by an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The antibody titres were usually lower in skim milk than in serum, but all seropositive cows (n = 84) were also skim milk-positive and all but one seronegative cow (n = 55) proved negative in skim milk. During lactation, the level of antibodies to BVDV in milk showed an inverse relationship to the amount of milk produced. However, there was a sufficient level of antibodies in milk throughout lactation to permit an adequate determination of BVDV antibody status in dairy cows. There was a mutual good agreement between milk antibody titre in the four mammary quarters, irrespective of milk cell count. Milk can be used to detect seroreactors to BVDV. Milk is preferable to blood in large-scale epidemiological studies, since the sampling procedure is much simpler.