Comprehensive analysis of performance, physiological, and perceptual responses during an entire sprint cross-country skiing competition

PURPOSE

To investigate performance, physiological, and perceptual responses of an entire sprint cross-country skiing competition in the skating style.

METHODS

Eighteen national-level male junior skiers participated in a simulated competition comprising an individual time trial (TT), followed by three heats (quarterfinals [QF], semifinals [SF], and final [F]). Participants' heart rate (HR) was continuously monitored while perceived readiness (RED, 1-10), rating of perceived exertion (RPE, 6-20), and blood lactate [La-] were assessed at standardized time points.

RESULTS

The total duration and distance covered were 03:30 ± 00:06 h and 25.2 ± 2.9 km, respectively. The participants spent 02:19 ± 00:27 h > 60% of their maximal HR (HRmax) and 00:16 ± 00:04 h > 85% of HRmax. Average HR decreased from TT to F (89.3 ± 2.0% vs. 86.9 ± 3.0% of HRmax, P < 0.01). [La-] levels were highest before (4.6 ± 2.0 vs. 2.9 ± 1.2, 3.2 ± 2.0 and 2.5 ± 1.3 mmol·L-1, all P < 0.01) and after (10.8 ± 1.4 vs. 9.8 ± 1.6, 9.1 ± 1.8 and 8.7 ± 1.7 mmol·L-1, all P < 0.05) F compared to TT, QF, and SF, respectively. RED was lowest before F compared to TT, QF, and SF (6.6 ± 1.4 vs. 7.9 ± 1.1, 7.6 ± 1.1, and 7.4 ± 1.4, respectively, all P < 0.05) while RPE was highest after TT compared to QF, SF, and F (17.8 ± 0.9 vs. 15.1 ± 2.0, 16.5 ± 1.2 and 16.6 ± 1.8, respectively, all P < 0.01). The six best-performing skiers demonstrated higher RED before F (7.2 ± 0.9 vs. 5.3 ± 1.2, P < 0.05) and higher [La-] after F (11.2 ± 0.2 vs. 10.2 ± 0.3, mmol·L-1, P < 0.05) than lower-performing competitors.

CONCLUSION

This study provides novel insights into physiological demands of an entire sprint cross-country skiing competition, which involves repeated 3-min high-intensity efforts interspersed with > 2 h (25 km) of low- to moderate-intensity exercise.

Performance-Determining Variables of a Simulated Sprint Cross-Country Skiing Competition

PURPOSE

To investigate performance-determining variables of an on-snow sprint cross-country skiing competition and the evolvement in their relationship with performance as the competition progresses from the individual time trial (TT) to the final.

METHODS

Sixteen national-level male junior skiers (mean [SD] age, 18.6 [0.8] y; peak oxygen uptake [VO2peak], 67.6 [5.5] mL·min-1·kg-1) performed a simulated sprint competition (1.3 km) in the skating style, comprising a TT followed by 3 finals (quarterfinals, semifinals, and final) completed by all skiers. In addition, submaximal and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, on-snow maximal speed tests, and strength/power tests were performed.

RESULTS

VO2peak and peak treadmill speed during incremental testing and relative heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, blood lactate concentrations, and gross efficiency during submaximal testing were all significantly correlated with performance in the TT and subsequent finals (mean [range] r values: .67 [.53-.86], all P < .05). Relative VO2peak and submaximal relative heart rate and blood lactate concentration were more strongly correlated with performance in the semifinals and final compared with the TT (r values: .74 [.60-.83] vs 0.55 [.51-.60], all P < .05). Maximal speed in uphill and flat terrain was significantly correlated with performance in the TT and subsequent finals (r values: .63 [.38-.70], all P < .05), while strength/power tests did not correlate significantly with sprint performance.

CONCLUSIONS

VO2peak and high-speed abilities were the most important determinants of sprint cross-country skiing performance, with an increased importance of VO2peak as the competition format progressed toward the final.

The Evolution of World-Class Endurance Training: The Scientist's View on Current and Future Trends

BACKGROUND

Elite sport is continuously evolving. World records keep falling and athletes from a longer list of countries are involved.

PURPOSE

This commentary was designed to provide insights into present and future trends associated with world-class endurance training based on the perspectives, experience, and knowledge of an expert panel of 25 applied sport scientists.

RESULTS

The key drivers of development observed in the past 10-15 years were related to (1) more accessible scientific knowledge for coaches and athletes combined with (2) better integration of practical and scientific exchange across multidisciplinary perspectives within professionalized elite athlete support structures, as well as (3) utilization of new technological advances. Based on these perspectives, we discerned and exemplified the main trends in the practice of endurance sports into the following categories: better understanding of sport-specific demands; improved competition execution; larger, more specific, and more precise training loads; improved training quality; and a more professional and healthier lifestyle. The main areas expected to drive future improvements were associated with more extensive use of advanced technology for monitoring and prescribing training and recovery, more precise use of environmental and nutritional interventions, better understanding of athlete-equipment interactions, and greater emphasis on preventing injuries and illnesses.

CONCLUSIONS

These expert insights can serve as a platform and inspiration to develop new hypotheses and ideas, encourage future collaboration between researchers and sport practitioners, and, perhaps most important, stimulate curiosity and further collaborative studies about the training, physiology, and performance of endurance athletes.

The influence of tactical positioning on performance in sprint cross-country skiing

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of tactical positioning on performance in the heats of sprint cross-country (XC) skiing among men and women and the consistency of overtaking events over repeated competitions on the same racecourse. Thirty male and thirty female elite to world-class level skiers within each competition [(sprint International Ski and Snowboard Federation (FIS) points: 40 ± 21 vs. 35 ± 24)] performed two repeated world-cup competitions at four different venues (two in the classical and two in the skating style) between 2017 and 2020. The intermediate rankings at five checkpoints were analysed using television broadcasts of the competitions. Sprint time-trial (STT) rank correlated positively with the final rank for the seven men's (ρ = .54-.82, P < .01) and the eight women's (ρ = .40-.80, P < .05) competitions, while one of the classical competitions for males did not correlate significantly (P = .23). The strength of the correlation coefficients between intermediate ranks and final ranks during the heats increased gradually from the first to the last checkpoint among both sexes in the classical style (τ = ~0.26 to ~0.70) and in the skating style (τ = ~0.22 to ~0.82), in which the majority of performance-variance was decided before the start of the finish sprint. For both sexes, ~20 and 16 overtaking events were observed in each heat for the classical and skating style, respectively. There was a significant sex-difference in the number of overtaking events in one out of the 16 competitions (P < .01), but no differences across seasons for any competition (P = .051-796). Overall, this study showed the importance of tactical positioning for performance in sprint XC skiing, with the number of overtaking events being relatively consistent for competitions performed on the same racecourse.

Long-term development of performance, physiological, and training characteristics in a world-class female biathlete

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to investigate the long-term development of performance, physiological, and training characteristics in a world-class female biathlete, with emphasis on differences between junior and senior athlete seasons.

Methods

The participant is a highly decorated female biathlete with 22 (10 gold) medals from international championships and 28 individual World Cup wins. Performance development (ages 17-33), physiological tests (ages 22-33), and day-to-day physical and shooting training (ages 17-33) were analyzed. Training data were systemized by endurance [low-intensity training (LIT), moderate-intensity training (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], exercise mode, and strength training. Shooting training recorded for each session included the number of shots fired during rest, LIT, MIT, HIT, or competitions and time spent on dry fire training.

Results

The annual volume of physical training (409-792 h·season^-1) and number of shots fired (1,163-17,328 shots·season^-1) increased from the age of 17 to 28 followed by a subsequent reduction in physical training (range 657-763 h·season^-1) and shots fired (13,275-15,355 shots·season^-1) during the seasons of peak performance at ages 31-33. Maximal oxygen uptake in roller ski skating increased by 10% (62.9-69.2 ml·kg^-1·min^-1) from the age of 22 to 27. The physical training volume was 48% higher (694 ± 60 vs. 468 ± 23 h·season^-1, P = .030), with 175% more shots fired (14,537 ± 1,109 vs. 5,295 ± 3,425 shots·season^-1, P = .016) as a senior athlete than a junior athlete. In the physical training, these differences were mainly explained by higher volumes of LIT (602 ± 56 vs. 392 ± 22 h·season^-1, P = .032) and MIT (34 ± 1 vs. 7 ± 2 h·season^-1, P = .001) but less HIT (27 ± 1 vs. 42 ± 3 h·season^-1, P = .006) as a senior than a junior. In line with this, shooting training as a senior included more shots fired both at rest (5,035 ± 321 vs. 1,197 ± 518 shots·season^-1, P = .011) and during LIT (7,440 ± 619 vs. 2,663 ± 1,975 shots·season^-1, P = .031), while a smaller insignificant difference was observed in the number of shots fired in connection with MIT, HIT, and competitions (2,061 ± 174 vs. 1,435 ± 893 shots·season^-1, P = .149).

Conclusions

This study provides unique insights into the long-term development of physical and shooting training from junior to senior in a world-class female biathlete. The major differences in training characteristics between junior and senior athlete seasons were higher sport-specific volumes of LIT and MIT and less HIT. These differences were accompanied by more shooting training, particularly at rest, and in connection with LIT.

Race development and performance-determining factors in a mass-start cross-country skiing competition

Introduction

Although five of six Olympic events in cross-country skiing involve mass-starts, those events are sparsely examined scientifically. Therefore, in this study, we investigated speed profiles, pacing strategies, group dynamics and their performance-determining impact in a cross-country skiing mass-start competition.

Methods

Continuous speed and position of 57 male skiers was measured in a six-lap, 21.8 km national mass-start competition in skating style and later followed up with an online questionnaire. Skiers ranked from 1 to 40 were split into four performance-groups: R1-10 for ranks 1 to 10, R11-20 for ranks 11 to 20, R21-30 for ranks 21 to 30, and R31-40 for ranks 31 to 40.

Results

All skiers moved together in one large pack for 2.3 km, after which lower-performing skiers gradually lost the leader pack and formed small, dynamic packs. A considerable accordion effect occurred during the first half of the competition that lead to additional decelerations and accelerations and a higher risk of incidents that disadvantaged skiers at the back of the pack. Overall, 31% of the skiers reported incidents, but none were in R1-10. The overall trend was that lap speed decreased after Lap 1 for all skiers and thereafter remained nearly unchanged for R1-10, while it gradually decreased for the lower-performing groups. Skiers in R31-40, R21-30, and R11-20 lost the leader pack during Lap 3, Lap 4, and Lap 5, respectively, and more than 60% of the time-loss relative to the leader pack occurred in the uphill terrain sections. Ultimately, skiers in R1-10 sprinted for the win during the last 1.2 km, in which 2.4 s separated the top five skiers, and a photo finish differentiated first from second place. Overall, a high correlation emerged between starting position and final rank.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that (a) an adequate starting position, (b) the ability to avoid incidents and disadvantages from the accordion effect, (c) tolerate fluctuations in intensity, and (d) maintain speed throughout the competition, particularly in uphill terrain, as well as (e) having well-developed final sprint abilities, are key factors determining performance during skating-style mass-start cross-country skiing competitions.

The return from underperformance to sustainable world-class level: A case study of a male cross-country skier

Purpose: To determine the main factors associated with unexpected underperformance and prospectively describe the holistic process of returning to sustainable world-class level in a male cross-country skier. Methods: Longitudinal training data was retrospectively analyzed across nine seasons (2012-2013 to 2020-2021), and categorized into training forms (endurance, strength, and speed), intensities [low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], and modes (specific and non-specific). Performance data was obtained from the International Ski and Snowboard Federation. Following two seasons of unexpected underperformance (2019-2020 and 2020-2021), the participant was prospectively followed in the process of returning to sustainable world-class level (2021-2022). Day-to-day training data and physiological tests were analyzed, and interviews with the participant and the head coach conducted. Results: Longitudinal training data from 2012-2013 to 2018-2019 demonstrated a non-linear 30% increase in total training volume (from 772 to 1,002 h), mainly caused by increased volume of ski-specific endurance training without changes in intensity distribution. Coincidingly, the participant gradually reached a world-class performance level. After two seasons of unexpected underperformance with relatively similar training volumes and intensity distributions as in the preceding seasons, the possible contributing factors were identified: lack of training periodization, limited monitoring and intensity control, particularly in connection with a "extreme" regime of training with low carbohydrate availability and days including two MIT sessions, as well as lack of systematic technique training and follow-up by coaches on a daily basis. Consequently, the return to world-class level included the introduction of a clear micro-cycle periodization, more systematic physiological monitoring and testing, more accurate intensity control, increased carbohydrate intake during and between sessions, as well as increased emphasize on technique training and an assistant coach present during day-to-day training. Conclusion: These longitudinal data describe the main factors leading to unexpected underperformance, in addition to providing unique insights into the corresponding process of returning to sustainable world-class level in a male cross-country skier. The holistic approach described in this case study may serve as a theoretical framework for future studies and practical work with underperforming endurance athletes.

Place of residence and coach-athlete relationship predict drop-out from competitive cross-country skiing

The current study investigated whether factors such as living residence, the coach-athlete working alliance, goal orientation, and intrinsic motivation could explain drop-out, and whether these factors differed between athletes included in the elite- vs. general sport programs during high school years. In total 257 cross-country skiers, graduated from three different Norwegian Top Sport schools during the period from 2015 to 2019, were recruited to retrospectively investigate their experiences related to the time period when they participated in programs for cross-country skiing at high school. In total 116 of these athletes completed an online survey including validated and standardized instruments for the assessment of the coach-athlete working alliance (CAWAI), goal orientation (GO), perceived satisfaction with their performances (PAP) and intrinsic motivation (IM). The results showed that 84% of the athletes had dropped out from cross-country skiing, while 16% were still active. The highest ranked fixed statements of causes for drop-out was "a natural choice" (3.79 ± 1.11), "priority of education or work" (3.61 ± 1.30), "lack of motivation" (3.49 ± 1.28), "negative performance development" (3.46 ± 1.18), and "challenges with health" (3.25 ± 1.54). There were significant differences between active and drop-out in scores for reciprocity between the coaches' and the athletes' perceptions of goals (CAWAI-goal; 5.87 ± .98 vs. 5.07 ± 1.15; p = .004), the coach-athlete relationship bond (CAWAI-bond; 6.08 ± .91 vs. 5.07 ± 1.38; p = .001), and tasks chosen to reach the defined goals (CAWAI-task; 5.61 ± .92 vs. 4.90 ± 1.09; p = .006). Furthermore, active athletes had higher mastery orientation (22.11 ± 2.88 vs. 20.00 ± 3.74; p = .010). A hierarchical binary logistic regression analysis showed that place of residence and the coach-athlete working alliance were significant predictors of drop-out while mastery and performance goal orientation or intrinsic motivation were not significant. All five predictors explained 23% of the variability in drop out from cross-country skiing. Overall, 58% and 42% of the athletes participated in the elite and general programs for cross-country skiing during high school, respectively. The athletes that took part in the elite programs reported significantly stronger coach-athlete working alliances (CAWAI-sum; 14.46±3.10 vs. 14.28±3.37; p = .000), higher mastery orientation (21.19±3.50 vs. 19.36±3.66; p = .008), and performance satisfaction (PAP; 19.17±5.98 vs. 15.69±5.19; p = .001) compared to the athletes attending general programs. The results are discussed in terms of existing knowledge on how place of residence, the coach-athlete working alliance, goal orientation, performances, and motivation might impact drop-out in cross-country skiing.

One Long Versus 2 Short Sessions? Physiological and Perceptual Responses to Low-Intensity Training at Self-Selected Speeds in Cross-Country Skiers

PURPOSE

To compare self-selected speeds and corresponding physiological responses and perceived training stress between 1 long session versus 2 shorter sessions of low-intensity training (LIT) in 1 day among cross-country skiers.

METHODS

Thirteen national-level skiers performed 2 different LIT types during classical roller-skiing matched for the same distance in a counterbalanced order. The training consisted of either 1 long (approximately 3 h) session (1LIT) or 2 shorter (approximately 1.5 h each) sessions (2LIT) with 7 hours of recovery in between. Speed, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and blood lactate concentrations were measured, and perceived training stress (1-10) was assessed after sessions.

RESULTS

2LIT was performed at mean (SD) 1.9% (2.0%) higher speeds versus 1LIT (P ≤ .01). Higher speeds were also found in the second versus first session of 2LIT and the second versus first part of 1LIT (1.9% [3.2%] and 3.2% [3.6%], respectively, both P ≤ .01). There were no significant differences between LIT types in heart rate, although rating of perceived exertion increased in the second versus first part of 1LIT (0.9 [0.8] point, P ≤ .01). Blood lactate concentration was reduced in the second versus first session/part of both LIT types (approximately 0.16 [0.20] mmol·L-1, P ≤ .05). There were no differences in perceived training stress between LIT types 7 and 23 hours after training, although higher perceived muscular exertion (2.0 [1.1] points, P ≤ .01) was found directly after 1LIT.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with a distance-matched long session, skiers perform 2LIT at slightly higher self-selected speeds with the same physiological responses elicited, although minor differences in perceived training stress were observed.

Analysis of a Skating Time-Trial Competition and Associated Performance-Determinants in Cross-Country Skiers

Purpose: To examine the contributions of time in different terrains and sub-technique distribution to overall time-trial performance, as well as the relationships of laboratory and field-based performance determinants in cross-country skiers. Methods: Fourteen male XC skiers were monitored during a 10 km (3 × 3.3 km) skating time-trial competition. On separate days, the skiers performed body composition assessments, laboratory tests while roller-ski skating and a 3 km uphill skating field test. Results: Time in uphill terrain was most strongly correlated with overall performance (r = 0.99, p < 0.01). G2 and G3 were the predominant sub-techniques (61% of overall time) with more use of G2 on lap three compared to lap one (p < 0.05). Body mass and lean mass were inversely correlated with overall and uphill performance (r = -0.60-0.75, all p < 0.05). VO₂ at 4 mmol·L^-1, VO_2peak and TTE while roller-ski skating in the laboratory and the 3 km uphill skating field test correlated with overall performance (r = -0.66-0.85, all p < 0.05). Conclusions: Time in uphill terrain was the main contributor to overall performance, and G3 and G2 the most used sub-techniques with increased utilization of G2 throughout the competition. VO_2peak and TTE while roller-ski skating in the laboratory and performance in an uphill skating field test had the strongest associations with time-trial performance.

A Comparison of Double Poling Physiology and Kinematics Between Long-Distance and All-Round Cross-Country Skiers

Purpose

The objective of this study was to compare physiological and kinematic responses to double poling (DP) between long-distance (LDS) and all-round (ARS) cross-country skiers.

Methods

A number of five world-class LDS (28.8 ± 5.1 years, maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max): 70.4 ± 2.9 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) and seven ARS (22.3 ± 2.8 years, VO_2max: 69.1 ± 4.2 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) athletes having similar training volumes and VO_2max performed three identical tests; (1) submaximal and incremental tests to exhaustion while treadmill DP to determine gross efficiency (GE), peak oxygen uptake (DP-VO_2peak), and peak speed; (2) submaximal and incremental running tests to exhaustion to determine GE, VO_2max (RUN-VO_2max), and peak speed; and (3) an upper-body pull-down exercise to determine one repetition maximum (1RM) and peak power. Physiological responses were determined during both DP and running, together with the assessments of kinematic responses and electromyography (EMG) of selected muscles during DP.

Results

Compared to ARS, LDS reached higher peak speed (22.1 ± 1.0 vs. 20.7 ± 0.9 km·h⁻¹, p = 0.030), DP-VO_2peak (68.3 ± 2.1 vs. 65.1 ± 2.7 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, p = 0.050), and DP-VO_2peak/RUN-VO_2max ratio (97 vs. 94%, p = 0.075) during incremental DP to exhaustion, as well as higher GE (17.2 vs. 15.9%, p = 0.029) during submaximal DP. There were no significant differences in cycle length or cycle rate between the groups during submaximal DP, although LDS displayed longer relative poling times (~2.4% points) at most speeds compared to ARS (p = 0.015). However, group × speed interaction effects (p < 0.05) were found for pole angle and vertical fluctuation of body center of mass, with LDS maintaining a more upright body position and more vertical pole angles at touchdown and lift-off at faster speeds. ARS displayed slightly higher normalized EMG amplitude than LDS in the muscles rectus abdominis (p = 0.074) and biceps femoris (p = 0.027). LDS performed slightly better on 1RM upper-body strength (122 vs. 114 kg, p = 0.198), with no group differences in power in the pull-down exercise.

Conclusions

The combination of better DP-specific aerobic energy delivery capacity, efficiency, and technical solutions seems to contribute to the superior DP performance found among specialized LDS in comparison with ARS.

Comparison of High and Low Responders to a Cross-Country Skiing Talent Transfer Program: A Coach's Perspective

PURPOSE

To examine how coaches differentiate athletes with successful and non-successful development during a cross-country (XC) skiing talent transfer (TT) program.

METHODS

We conducted qualitative, semi-structured interviews with seven Norwegian coaches working with a group of 23 Chinese summer endurance athletes transferring from running, rowing, and kayaking to the winter endurance sport XC skiing over a six-month training period. The athletes were grouped as either high (n = 9), moderate (n = 3), or low responders (n = 11) based on objective performance development, quantified using laboratory testing. The interview guide contained six sections: physiological development, technical development, psychological characteristics, training and recovery routines, athlete background, and considerations about the effectiveness of TT initiatives in general.

RESULTS

The assessments of the coaches revealed that greater development of both physiological and technical capacities among the high-responding TT athletes were associated with higher motivation, as well as superior ability to deal with adversity in the development process.

CONCLUSION

The coaches considered the TT program to be effective; however, successful transfer of athletes to a world class level in a complex sport such as XC skiing requires a multidisciplinary selection process and a longer time frame than the six-month period used in the current project.

Laboratory- and field-based performance-predictions in cross-country skiing and roller-skiing

The purpose of the present study was to investigate how various laboratory- and field-based tests predict on-snow cross-country (XC) skiing and roller-skiing performance. Thirty-three national-level male XC skiers (19.0±2.5 years, maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max] 70.8±4.7 mL·min-1·kg-1) performed a 13.6-km roller-ski skating competition tracked by a global positioning system (GPS), which together with individual distance International Ski Federation (FIS) points was used to assess their performance level. On separate days, time in a 6.4-km uphill running time-trial (RUN-TT) and 1.3-km uphill roller-ski double-poling time-trial (DP-TT) was measured in the field and performance indices determined while running and roller-ski skating in the laboratory. The mean finishing times for the RUN-TT and the DP-TT showed moderate to large correlations with distance FIS points and performance in the roller-ski skating competition (r = 0.56-0.72; all p<0.05). RUN-TT was more strongly correlated with distance FIS points than DP-TT (r = 0.72 versus 0.56; p<0.05). Performance indices and VO2max in incremental running and roller-ski skating in the laboratory showed large to very large correlations with distance FIS points and roller-skiing performance (r = 0.50-0.90; all p<0.05). Performance indices and VO2max in running tended to be more strongly correlated with roller-skiing performance than corresponding values obtained while roller-ski skating (all p<0.10). The present findings suggest that both laboratory performance indices and field-based performance tests provide valid predictions of XC skiing and roller-skiing performance in a heterogeneous group of male XC skiers, with test values obtained in running tending to be more strongly correlated with XC skiing performance than those found for technique-specific modalities on roller skis. However, more sophisticated and mode-specific testing might be required for more homogenous groups of elite XC skiers.

Preparing for the Nordic Skiing Events at the Beijing Olympics in 2022: Evidence-Based Recommendations and Unanswered Questions

At the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing, the XC skiing, biathlon and nordic combined events will be held at altitudes of ~ 1700 m above sea level, possibly in cold environmental conditions and while requiring adjustment to several time zones. However, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic may lead to sub-optimal preparations. The current commentary provides the following evidence-based recommendations for the Olympic preparations: make sure to have extensive experience of training (> 60 days annually) and competition at or above the altitude of competition (~ 1700 m), to optimize and individualize your strategies for acclimatization and competition. In preparing for the Olympics, 10-14 days at ~ 1700 m seems to optimize performance at this altitude effectively. An alternative strategy involves two-three weeks of training at > 2000 m, followed by 7-10 days of tapering off at ~ 1700 m. During each of the last 3 or 4 days prior to departure, shift your sleeping and eating schedule by 0.5-1 h towards the time zone in Beijing. In addition, we recommend that you arrive in Beijing one day earlier for each hour change in time zone, followed by appropriate timing of exposure to daylight, meals, social contacts, and naps, in combination with a gradual increase in training load. Optimize your own individual procedures for warming-up, as well as for maintaining body temperature during the period between the warm-up and competition, effective treatment of asthma (if necessary) and pacing at  ~ 1700 m with cold ambient temperatures. Although we hope that these recommendations will be helpful in preparing for the Beijing Olympics in 2022, there is a clear need for more solid evidence gained through new sophisticated experiments and observational studies.

Development of Performance, Physiological and Technical Capacities During a Six-Month Cross-Country Skiing Talent Transfer Program in Endurance Athletes

Purpose: To examine the development of performance, physiological and technical capacities as well as the effect of sport background among runners, kayakers and rowers when transferred to cross-country (XC) skiing over a 6-month training period.

Methods: Twenty-four endurance athletes (15 runners and 9 rowers/kayakers; 15 men and 9 women) were tested for performance, physiological and technical capacities during treadmill running and roller-ski skating, double-poling ergometry, as well as upper-body, one-repetition maximum-strength (1 RM) at baseline (pre) after three (mid) and 6-months (post) of XC ski-specific training.

Results: Peak treadmill speed when roller-ski skating improved significantly (13%, P < 0.01) from pre-post, with a larger improvement in runners than in kayakers/rowers (16 vs. 9%, P < 0.05), whereas peak speed in running was unchanged. Average power output during 5-min and 30-s ergometer double-poling tests improved by 8% and 5% (both P < 0.01), with improvement found only in runners on the 30-s test (8 vs. −2% in kayakers/rowers, P < 0.01). Peak oxygen uptake (VO_2peak) in running and double-poling ergometry did not improve, whereas VO_2peak in roller-ski skating improved by 5% in runners (P < 0.05). Submaximal gross efficiency increased by 0.6%-point and cycle length by 13%, whereas 1 RM in seated pull-down and triceps press increased by 12 and 11%, respectively (all P < 0.05).

Conclusion: Six-months of XC ski-specific training induced large improvements in sport-specific performance which were associated with better skiing efficiency, longer cycle length, and greater 1RM upper-body strength in a group of endurance athletes transferring to XC skiing. Furthermore, larger sport-specific development was found in runners compared to kayakers/rowers.

Comparison of High- vs. Low-Responders Following a 6-Month XC Ski-Specific Training Period: A Multidisciplinary Approach

Individual training responses among endurance athletes are determined by a complex interplay between training load, recovery and genetic influence. The present study used a multidisciplinary approach to compare high- and low-responders following a 6-month training period in endurance athletes transferring to cross-country (XC) skiing. Twenty-three endurance-trained athletes (14 runners and 9 rowers/kayakers; 14 men and 9 women) were classified as high (n = 9) or low-responders (n = 11) based on pre- to post changes in treadmill running, roller-ski skating and double-poling ergometry performances following 6-months of standardized XC ski-specific training. Physiological and technical capacities during these same modes were monitored pre and post. In addition, training volume, intensity, mode and session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) training load were quantified daily. Finally, qualitative interviews of the athlete's personal coaches were performed after the intervention. There were no differences between groups with respect to physiological baseline characteristics. High-responders improved maximum oxygen uptake (VO_2max) in treadmill running (5.5 ± 7.0% change from pre- to post) as well as peak oxygen uptake (VO_2peak; 7.3 ± 7.0%) and power output at 4 mmol·L⁻¹ (37.7 ± 28.2%) treadmill roller-ski skating which differed from a corresponding non-significant change in low-responders (−1.2 ± 3.6%, −2.7 ± 3.7% and 8.2 ± 12.5%; all P ≤ 0.05). VO_2peak in double-poling ergometry did not change in any group, whereas gross efficiency and cycle length in roller-ski skating improved in both groups. High-responders performed greater training loads (weekly load: 3825 ± 1013 vs. 3228 ±.748 and load/volume ratio: 4.9 ± 0.6 vs. 4.2 ± 0.5; both P ≤ 0.05) and had lower incident of injury/illness (5 ± 3 vs. 10 ± 5 days; P = 0.07). Their coaches highlighted high motivation to train and compete, together with the ability to build a strong coach-athlete relationship, to separate high- from low-responders. In conclusion, high-responders to 6-months of standardized XC ski-specific training demonstrates greater improvement in maximal/peak aerobic capacity, which was coincided by higher training loads, greater perceived effort during sessions and lower incidents of injury and illness in comparison to their lower-responding counterparts. Possibly, the higher motivation and stronger coach-athlete relationships in high-responders contributed to more individually optimized training and recovery routines, and thereby more positive performance-development.

Analysis of a Biathlon Sprint Competition and Associated Laboratory Determinants of Performance

Biathlon is an Olympic winter-sport where cross-country (XC) skiing in the skating technique is combined with rifle shooting. In the biathlon sprint competition for men, three laps of 3.3-km are interspersed with a 5-shot shooting sequence in the prone and standing position. Our purpose was to investigate the contribution from overall XC skiing performance, the performance in different terrain sections and shooting performance to the overall biathlon sprint race performance, as well as the relationship to laboratory-measured capacities obtained during treadmill roller ski skating. Eleven elite male biathletes were tracked by a Global Positioning System (GPS) device and a heart rate (HR) monitor during an international 10-km biathlon sprint competition. Within a period of 6 weeks prior to the competition, physiological responses, and performance during submaximal and maximal treadmill roller skiing were measured. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that XC skiing time, shooting performance, shooting time and range time explained 84, 14, 1.8, and 0.2% of the overall sprint race performance (all p < 0.01). Time in uphill, varied, and downhill terrains were all significantly correlated to the total XC skiing time (r = 0.95, 0.82, 0.72, respectively, all p < 0.05). Percent of maximal HR (HRmax) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during submaximal roller skiing, and time-to-exhaustion during incremental roller skiing correlated significantly with overall biathlon sprint race performance and overall XC skiing time (r = 0.64–0.95, all p < 0.05). In conclusion, XC skiing performance provided greatest impact on biathlon sprint performance, with most of the variance determined by XC skiing performance in the uphill terrain sections. Furthermore, the ability to roller ski with a low RPE and %HRmax during submaximal speeds, as well as time-to-exhaustion during incremental roller skiing significantly predicted biathlon performance. Such laboratory-derived measures may therefore be validly used to distinguish biathletes of different performance levels and to track progress of their XC skiing capacity.