Social-ecological network analysis for sustainability sciences: a systematic review and innovative research agenda for the future

Social-ecological network (SEN) concepts and tools are increasingly used in human-environment and sustainability sciences. We take stock of this budding research area to further show the strength of SEN analysis for complex human-environment settings, identify future synergies between SEN and wider human-environment research, and provide guidance about when to use different kinds of SEN approaches and models. We characterize SEN research along a spectrum specifying the degree of explicit network representation of system components and dynamics. We then systematically review one end of this spectrum, what we term "fully articulated SEN" studies, which specifically model unique social and ecological units and relationships. Results show more focus on methodological advancement and applied ends. While there has been some development and testing of theories, this remains an area for future work and would help develop SENs as a unique field of research, not just a method. Authors have studied diverse systems, while mainly focused on the problem of social-ecological fit alongside a scattering of other topics. There is strong potential, however, to engage other issues central to human-environment studies. Analyzing the simultaneous effects of multiple social, environmental, and coupled processes, change over time, and linking network structures to outcomes are also areas for future advancement. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of (fully articulated) SEN research, a necessary step that can help scholars develop comparable cases and fill research gaps.

Prejudices and perceptions: patient acceptance of mobile technology use in health care

mHealth is transforming health care, yet few studies have evaluated patient and carer perceptions of the use of smartphones at the patient bedside. In this study, 70 patients and carers answered a short survey on health professionals' use of mobile devices. Half the participants were tolerant of doctors using such devices if it was work-related; others believed it was a distraction and not beneficial to patient care. Changes in practice and patient education may be needed to enable effective use of mobile devices in health.

Phosphorus Feeding Levels and Critical Control Points on Dairy Farms

A viable and cost-effective approach to managing P on dairy farms is to minimize excess P in diets, which in turn leads to less excretion of P in manure without impairing animal performance. A questionnaire survey was conducted, coupled with on-site feed and fecal sample collection and analysis on dairy farms in New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. The purpose was to assess dietary P levels and to identify critical control points pertaining to P feeding management. Survey responses, 612 out of 2500 randomly selected farms, revealed a wide range of dietary P concentrations for lactating cows, from 3.6 to 7.0 g/kg of feed DM. The mean was 4.4 g/kg, which was 34% above the level recommended by the NRC for 27.9 kg milk/d, the mean milk yield in the survey. Higher P concentrations in diets were not associated with higher milk yields (n = 98, R2 = 0.057 for the survey farms; n = 92, R2 = 0.043 for farms selected for on-site sampling). However, higher dietary P led to higher P excretion in feces (n = 75, R2 = 0.429), with much of the increased fecal P being water soluble. Phosphorus concentrations in diet samples matched closely with P concentrations in formulated rations, with 67% of the feed samples deviating <10% from the formulations. On 84% of the survey farms, ration formulation was provided by professionals rather than producers themselves. Most producers were feeding more P than cows needed because it was recommended in the rations by these consultants. In conclusion, P fed to lactating cows averaged 34% above NRC recommendations; to reduce excess dietary P, ration formulation is the critical control point.

Variation in the spacer regions separating tRNA genes in Renibacterium salmoninarum distinguishes recent clinical isolates from the same location

A means for distinguishing between clinical isolates of Renibacterium salmoninarum that is based on the PCR amplification of length polymorphisms in the tRNA intergenic spacer regions (tDNA-ILPs) was investigated. The method used primers specific to nucleotide sequences of R. salmoninarum tRNA genes and tRNA intergenic spacer regions that had been generated by using consensus tRNA gene primers. Twenty-one PCR products were sequenced from five isolates of R. salmoninarum from the United States, England, and Scotland, and four complete tRNA genes and spacer regions were identified. Sixteen specific PCR primers were designed and tested singly and in all possible pairwise combinations for their potential to discriminate between isolates from recent clinical outbreaks of bacterial kidney disease (BKD) in the United Kingdom. Fourteen of the isolates were cultured from kidney samples taken from fish displaying clinical signs of BKD on five farms, and some of the isolates came from the same farm and at the same time. The tDNA-ILP profiles separated 22 clinical isolates into nine groups and highlighted that some farms may have had more than one source of infection. The grouping of isolates improved on the discriminatory power of previously reported typing methods based on randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis and restriction fragment length profiles developed using insertion sequence IS994. Our method enabled us to make divisions between closely related clinical isolates of R. salmoninarum that have identical exact tandem repeat (ETR-A) loci, rRNA intergenic spacer sequences, and IS994 profiles.

Renibacterium salmoninarum isolates from different sources possess two highly conserved copies of the rRNA operon

The nucleotide sequences of the rRNA genes and the 5' flanking region were determined for R. salmoninarum ATCC 33209T from overlapping products generated by PCR amplification from the genomic DNA. Comparison of the sequences with rRNA genes from a variety of bacteria demonstrated the close relatedness between R. salmoninarum and the high G+C group of the actinobacteria, in particular, Arthrobacter species. A regulatory element within the 5' leader of the rRNA operon was identical to an element, CL2, described for mycobacteria. PCR, DNA sequence analysis, and DNA hybridisation were performed to examine variation between isolates from diverse sources which represented the four 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer sequevars previously described for R. salmoninarum. Two 23S-5S rRNA intergenic spacer sequevars of identical length were found. DNA hybridisation using probes complementary to 23S rDNA and 16S rDNA identified two rRNA operons which were identical or nearly identical amongst 40 isolates sourced from a variety of countries.

Description and characterization of IS994, a putative IS3 family insertion sequence from the salmon pathogen, Renibacterium salmoninarum

Renibacterium salmoninarum, a slowly growing, Gram-positive bacterium, is responsible for bacterial kidney disease in salmonid fishes world-wide. To date, no mobile genetic elements have been reported for this pathogen. Here, we describe the first insertion sequence (IS) identified from R. salmoninarum. This element, IS994, has a significant predicted amino acid sequence homology (64.8 and 71.9%) to the two open reading frames encoding the transposase of IS6110 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Protein parsimony and protein distance matrix analyses show that IS994 is a member of group IS51 of the IS3 family. From a conservative estimate, there are at least 17 chromosomal insertions of IS994 or closely related elements. Sequence analysis of seven of these loci reveals single nucleotide polymorphisms throughout the element (including the terminal inverted repeats), a 15bp insertion in three of the seven loci, and an absence of flanking direct repeats or conserved insertion site. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of XbaI-digested chromosomal DNA shows variations among European and North American isolates, indicating that IS994 may be a useful molecular marker for epizootiological studies.

Molecular diversity of Renibacterium salmoninarum isolates determined by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis

The molecular diversity among 60 isolates of Renibacterium salmoninarum which differ in place and date of isolation was investigated by using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. Isolates were grouped into 21 banding patterns which did not reflect the biological source. Four 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer (ITS1) sequence variations and two alleles of an exact tandem repeat locus, ETR-A, were the bases for formation of distinct groups within the RAPD clusters. This study provides evidence that the most common ITS1 sequence variant, SV1, possesses two copies of a 51-bp repeat unit at ETR-A and has been widely dispersed among countries which are associated with mainstream intensive salmonid culture.

The use of sedation and muscle relaxation in the ventilated infant

The use of sedation, muscle relaxation, or analgesia in the management of ventilated neonates has been controversial. Many neonatologists face a difficult decision on whether or not to use a muscle relaxant on a ventilated infant. This article reviews neonatal physiology and pharmacology, drug administration, absorption, distribution, and certain selected sedatives and analgesics. The muscle relaxants, financial issues, and family issues are also discussed.

Spatial and temporal expression of the 72-kDa type IV collagenase (MMP-2) correlates with development and differentiation of valves in the embryonic avian heart

Extracellular proteases may play an important role in the regulation of cell migration and remodeling of the extracellular matrix during development. In this study, we have examined the embryonic avian heart for the expression of matrix metalloproteases. The 72-kDa type IV collagenase, MMP-2, was detected in extracts of whole hearts and showed a modest increase in amount over time. This increase in enzyme activity corresponded to a small increase in the steady-state level of mRNA for this enzyme. A more dramatic increase was seen in the amount of the 66-kDa activated form of this enzyme as development progressed, suggesting that the process of activation, rather than enzyme synthesis, may be the important regulatory step in this system. Coincident with the change in the level of active MMP-2 was a significant increase in the expression of the MMP-2 activator, MT-MMP, between stages 12 and 24. The message for MMP-2 was expressed by the endocardium of the cushion tissues which was undergoing an epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and by the migrating mesenchymal cells, suggesting a role for this protease in regulating cell motility and matrix invasion. In older staged hearts, the cells of the differentiating valves expressed high levels of MMP-2 which may be important for the final remodeling events in this region.

Inhibition of urokinase synthesis and cell surface binding alters the motile behavior of embryonic endocardial-derived mesenchymal cells in vitro

The expression of the serine protease urokinase is elevated during the epithelial-mesenchymal transformation of the endocardium in the developing avian heart. Elevated urokinase expression is associated with the migrating mesenchymal cells of the atrioventricular canal and bulbotruncus and not the myocardium. Treatment of isolated endocardial-derived mesenchymal cells with phosphatidyinositol-specific phospholipase C released urokinase and its receptor from the cell surface and caused significant alterations in cell morphology and motility. Likewise inhibition of urokinase synthesis by treatment of cells with antisense oligonucleotides also inhibited the migration and motility of the endocardial-derived cells. These results suggest an important role for this enzyme in cell-matrix interactions and cell migration during development.

Urokinase production by embryonic endocardial-derived cells: regulation by substrate composition

Early events in cardiovascular morphogenesis are characterized by cell migrations and extensive tissue remodeling. We are interested in the role played by the extracellular serine protease urokinase in these events. Elevated urokinase activity and mRNA levels have been shown to be associated with the onset of ventricular trabeculation and mesenchymal cell migration in the endocardial cushion tissues of the atrioventricular canal and the outflow tract of the quail embryo. In this study, urokinase production by isolated endocardial-derived cells was found to be affected by the composition of the matrix to which the cells were exposed. Interaction of cells with a 45-kDa gelatin-binding fragment of fibronectin upregulated the production of urokinase by nearly threefold. This increase in urokinase activity had profound influences on cell motility and spreading.

Urokinase expression during the epithelial-mesenchymal transformation of the avian somite

Early events in the morphogenesis of the axial skeleton involve an epithelial-mesenchymal transformation of the somites. Cells of the ventromedial wall of the somite (the sclerotome) migrate to regions surrounding the notochord and neural tube and condense to form the cartilage model of the vertebrae. Urokinase activity in the axial region of the quail embryo trunk was found to increase during these stages. In situ hybridization localized urokinase mRNA expression in this region and suggests an important role for this protease in the process of cell migration and matrix remodeling during development of the axial skeleton.

Transforming growth factor-beta alters differentiation in cultures of avian neural crest-derived cells: effects on cell morphology, proliferation, fibronectin expression, and melanogenesis

Neural crest cell differentiation is responsive to a variety of extrinsic signals that include extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules and growth factors. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) has diverse, cell type-specific effects, many of which involve regulation of synthesis of ECM molecules and their cell surface receptors. We are studying both separate and potentially interrelated influences of ECM and growth factors on crest differentiation and report here that TGF-beta alters several aspects of crest cell behavior in vitro. Clusters of quail neural crest cells were cultured in the presence and absence of 400 pM TGF-beta 1 and examined at 1, 3, and 5 days. When examined at 5 days, there was a dramatic decrease in the number of melanocytes in treated cultures, regardless of the onset or duration of TGF-beta treatment. With continuous TGF-beta treatment, or with treatment only during crest cluster formation on explanted neural tubes, many cells increased in area, becoming extremely flat. These changes were evident beginning on Day 3. While quantitative analyses of video images documented the size increase, several aspects of motility were relatively unchanged. Synthesis of fibronectin (FN) by approximately 11% of cells on Day 3 and 31% of cells on Day 5 was demonstrated by immunocytochemistry and was associated with a sixfold increase in FN mRNA by Day 5. Experiments which correlated FN immunoreactivity with incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine suggested that the population of large, flat, FN-positive cells did not proliferate selectively and that there was a slower rate of proliferation in TGF-beta-treated cultures than in untreated cultures. The large FN-immunoreactive cells resemble cells derived from cephalic neural crest and raise interesting questions concerning potential roles for TGF-beta in regulating crest differentiation in vivo.

Iso stimulation of GH and cAMP: comparison of beta-adrenergic- to GRF-stimulated GH release and cAMP accumulation in monolayer cultures of anterior pituitary cells in vitro

Growth hormone (GH) release and cAMP content were measured in monolayer cultures of anterior pituitary cells after beta-adrenergic and GH-releasing factor (GRF) receptor activation. Isoproterenol (Iso, ED50-20 nM) was less potent than GRF (ED50-20 pM) in stimulating GH release. Iso caused a rapid stimulation of GH release that was maximal after 15 min and declined thereafter, while GRF caused a more gradual increase in GH secretion that was maximal after 30 min and remained elevated after 3 h. Both Iso- and GRF-stimulated GH release were preceded by an increase in cAMP content in the pituitary cells. Further, the addition of 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) to the medium enhanced the GH-stimulatory and cAMP-accumulating effects of both secretagogues. Experiments performed with native catecholamines and synthetic catecholamine agonists and antagonists indicated that the GH-stimulatory effect of Iso was mediated by a mixed population of beta 1-adrenergic and beta 2-adrenergic receptors. Additionally, experiments performed with cultured GH3 tumor cells, found that incubation with GRF, Iso, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, forskolin, or cholera toxin caused an increase in cAMP content in the cells. However, compared to the responses observed in primary pituitary cultures the GH secretory response to these agents was comparatively small. Together, these studies suggest that a mixed population of beta 1-adrenergic and beta 2-adrenergic receptors may act, at least in part, on somatotrophs in the anterior pituitary to stimulate GH release. Although both GRF and beta 2-adrenergic receptor agents affect GH release through a common second messenger system, their differing pharmacokinetic properties suggest distinct intracellular mechanisms.