Intermittent At-Home Suctioning of Esophageal Content for Prevention of Recurrent Aspiration Pneumonia in 4 Dogs with Megaesophagus

Background

Megaesophagus carries a poor to guarded prognosis due to death from aspiration pneumonia. Options for medical management of regurgitation are limited to strategic oral or gastrostomy tube feeding.

Objectives

To describe the use and efficacy of intermittent esophageal suctioning to prevent regurgitation and associated episodes of aspiration pneumonia in dogs with megaesophagus.

Animals

Four dogs with acquired idiopathic megaesophagus and recurrent aspiration pneumonia.

Methods

Retrospective review of medical records of dogs with megaesophagus in which intermittent suctioning of esophageal content was employed for management of recurrent aspiration pneumonia.

Results

Intermittent suctioning of the esophagus was initiated in 4 dogs after failure of strict gastrostomy tube feeding failed to prevent regurgitation and repeated episodes of aspiration pneumonia. Suctioning was accomplished by esophagostomy tube in 3 dogs and per os in 1 dog. After initiation of esophageal suctioning, dogs survived for a median of 13.5 additional months (range, 10–30 months) during which time 2 dogs had no additional episodes of aspiration pneumonia and 2 dogs had infrequent episodes of pneumonia, but aspiration was suspected to be a contributing factor in their death. Complications included clogging of the esophagostomy tube, esophagostomy site infections, and esophagitis.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Use of intermittent esophageal suctioning in dogs with megaesophagus that continue to regurgitate despite gastrostomy tube feedings can reduce or abolish clinical episodes of aspiration pneumonia.

Identification of candidate genes for chicken early- and late-feathering

Previous studies suggest that prolactin receptor (Prlr) is a potential causative gene for chicken early- (EF) and late-feathering (LF) phenotypes. In this study, we evaluated candidate genes for this trait and determined the expression of 3 genes, including Prlr, sperm flagellar protein 2 (Spef2), and their fusion gene, in the skins of one-day-old EF and LF chicks using RT-qPCR. Data indicated that Prlr expression in the skin did not show significant difference between EF and LF chicks, suggesting Prlr may not be a suitable candidate gene. In contrast, Spef2 expression in the skin displayed a significant difference between EF and LF chicks (P < 0.01), suggesting that Spef2 may be a good candidate gene for chicken feathering. Moreover, dPrlr/dSpef2, the fusion gene, was also a good candidate gene as it was expressed only in LF chicks. However, the expression of the fusion gene was much lower than that of Prlr Additionally, using strand-specific primers, we found that the fusion gene was transcribed in 2 directions (one from dPrlr promoter, another from dSpef2 promoter), which could result in the formation of a double strand RNA. In conclusion, both Spef2 and the fusion gene are good candidate genes for chicken feathering, but Prlr is not. The research on the function and regulation of the candidate genes will help elucidate the molecular basis of the chicken feathering trait.

Analysis of health-related quality of life and costs based on a randomised clinical trial of escitalopram for relapse prevention in patients with generalised social anxiety disorder

BACKGROUND

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is associated with substantial reduction in health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Escitalopram has proven efficacy in the short-term treatment of SAD and prevention of relapse.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether the clinical effects of treatment translated into HRQoL benefits and to investigate costs of SAD treatment.

METHODS

Data on HRQoL and resource utilisation were collected in a previously published clinical trial of escitalopram in relapse prevention. Among 517 patients, 371 responded to 12 weeks of open-label treatment with escitalopram and were randomised to escitalopram or placebo for 24 weeks. HRQoL was assessed using the short form (SF)-36 instrument and SF-6D utilities (preference-based index scores for overall HRQoL) were calculated. Costs were calculated for responders over the acute phase and for non-relapsed patients over the continuation phase, applying UK unit costs.

RESULTS

Health-related quality of life was significantly improved after the acute phase when compared with baseline. The SF-6D utility increased by 0.047 in responders (p < 0.0001) and 0.021 in non-responders (p = 0.0005). Healthcare costs were non-significantly lower in acute phase than during prestudy phase (p = 0.0587 from NHS perspective), as were productivity costs (p = 0.1440). HRQoL at last visit was lower in relapsed than non-relapsed patients. The difference in utility was -0.026 (p = 0.0007). Healthcare and productivity costs were non-significantly lower in the escitalopram group than in the placebo group.

CONCLUSIONS

Both effective acute treatment of SAD and prevention of relapse with escitalopram are associated with significant HRQoL benefits. Despite some limitations, the cost analysis suggests that savings in physician-visits and inpatient care may offset drug acquisition costs.

Bad nature, bad nurture, and testimony regarding MAOA and SLC6A4 genotyping at murder trials

Recent research-in which subjects were studied longitudinally from childhood until adulthood-has started to clarify how a child's environment and genetic makeup interact to create a violent adolescent or adult. For example, male subjects who were born with a particular allele of the monoamine oxidase A gene and also were maltreated as children had a much greater likelihood of manifesting violent antisocial behavior as adolescents and adults. Also, individuals who were born with particular alleles of the serotonin transporter gene and also experienced multiple stressful life events were more likely to manifest serious depression and suicidality. This research raises the question of whether testimony regarding a defendant's genotype, exposure to child maltreatment, and experience of unusual stress is appropriate to present during the guilt or penalty phases of criminal trials, especially when capital punishment is a consideration. The authors present their experience in genotyping criminal defendants and presenting genetic information at criminal trials.

Antidepressants and seizures: emphasis on newer agents and clinical implications

Seizures are a known, relatively rare, consequence of antidepressant treatment. Risk estimates vary depending on the study, source of data and patient population, predisposed vs. nonpredisposed. For newer antidepressants (e.g. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, bupropion, mirtazepine, etc.), the risk is generally considered to be low (0.0%-0.4%) and not very different from the incidence of first seizure in the general population (0.07%-0.09%). Risk with tricyclic antidepressants at effective therapeutic doses is relatively high (0.4% to 1-2%). Seizure following overdose is a significant and relatively frequent event for some antidepressants. Patients being considered for antidepressant treatment should be screened for predisposition to seizures. Predisposed patients should receive antidepressants cautiously. The seizure potential of antidepressants in patients without a predisposition is low, especially for newer antidepressants. Seizure risk, along with other drug-related considerations, e.g. weight gain, sexual dysfunction and sedation, should be considered when prescribing an antidepressant.

Absence of discontinuation symptoms with agomelatine and occurrence of discontinuation symptoms with paroxetine: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled discontinuation study

The effects of an abrupt interruption of agomelatine, a new melatonergic/serotonergic antidepressant, were explored in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Paroxetine was used as active control. After 12 weeks of double-blind treatment with agomelatine 25 mg/day or paroxetine 20 mg/day, sustained remitted depressed patients were randomized for 2 weeks, under double-blind conditions, to placebo or to their initial antidepressant treatment. Discontinuation symptoms were assessed at the end of the first and second week of discontinuation with the Discontinuation Emergent Signs and Symptoms (DESS) checklist. One hundred and ninety-two sustained remitted patients were randomized to the 2-week discontinuation period. Patients who discontinued agomelatine did not experience more discontinuation symptoms than those who continued on agomelatine. Patients who discontinued paroxetine for placebo experienced significantly more DESS discontinuation symptoms, during the first week, compared to those who continued with paroxetine (respective mean number of emergent symptoms: 7.3+/-7.1 and 3.5+/-4.1, P<0.001). No significant difference was shown between the continuing and interrupting groups in the second week of discontinuation. By contrast to paroxetine, abrupt cessation of agomelatine is not associated with discontinuation symptoms.

A randomised study comparing escitalopram with venlafaxine XR in primary care patients with major depressive disorder

This 8-week, randomised, double-blind study compared the efficacy and tolerability of escitalopram to that of venlafaxine XR in primary care patients with major depressive disorder. The efficacy of escitalopram (10- 20 mg; n = 148) was similar to venlafaxine XR (75- 150 mg; n = 145), based on mean change from baseline to week 8 in Montgomery and Asberg Depression Rating Scale total score. In ad hoc analyses, escitalopram-treated patients achieved sustained remission significantly faster than did venlafaxine-treated patients. More venlafaxine-treated patients had nausea, constipation, and increased sweating (p < 0.05). When treatment was completed after 8 weeks, significantly more venlafaxine-treated patients had discontinuation symptoms (p < 0.01). Thus escitalopram treatment was similar to venlafaxine treatment with respect to efficacy and was better tolerated by patients in primary care.

Moclobemide is effective and well tolerated in the long-term pharmacotherapy of social anxiety disorder with or without comorbid anxiety disorder

Social phobia (social anxiety disorder) is a highly prevalent and chronic disorder that is associated with significant comorbidity and disability. Despite recent advances in the pharmacotherapy of the disorder, there is a paucity of randomized controlled trials on patients with comorbid disorders and on maintenance treatment. A randomized placebo-controlled, double-blind multi-site trial of moclobemide, a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A, was undertaken with 390 subjects. After an initial 12 weeks, there was the option of continuing for an additional 6 months of treatment. The primary efficacy parameter chosen was responder status as defined by the Clinical Global Impression scale change item. From week 4 onwards, there was a significantly higher response rate on moclobemide than on placebo. Superiority of medication over placebo was similar in patients with comorbid anxiety disorders (33% of subjects) and without, as well as in patients with different subtypes of social anxiety disorder; indeed, treatment with moclobemide rather than placebo was the strongest predictor of response. Adverse events were similar across treatment groups, and were typically mild and transient. In the extension phase, response rates remained higher in the moclobemide group, and ratings of tolerability were equally high in both groups. Thus, in a large sample of social anxiety disorder patients with and without comorbid anxiety disorders, moclobemide was both effective and well-tolerated in the short as well as long-term. These data confirm and extend previous findings on the value of moclobemide in the treatment of social anxiety disorder, and strengthen the range of therapeutic options for managing this important disorder.

Antidepressant medications: a review of the evidence for drug-induced sexual dysfunction

BACKGROUND

Sexual dysfunction is recognised as a potential side effect of antidepressant therapy. However, there is little detailed information on the prevalence of drug-induced sexual dysfunction or the differences, if any, between available drugs. This article is a critical review of the literature in the area.

METHODS

English-language studies on sexual dysfunction and depression or antidepressant treatments were identified by searching Medline and supplemented by manual review of their reference lists and recent journal issues available in a library. Trials of antidepressant use in anxiety disorders were identified from a Medline search and their adverse events tables scanned for data on sexual dysfunction. All trials were assessed according to predefined criteria.

RESULTS

Sexual dysfunction is widespread in the healthy non-depressed population and is a recognised symptom of depression and/or anxiety disorders. Sexual dysfunction has been reported with all classes of antidepressants (MAOIs, TCAs, SSRIs, SNRIs and newer antidepressants) in patients with depression and various anxiety disorders. Numerous studies have been published, but only one used a validated sexual function rating scale and most lacked either a baseline or a placebo control or both. None met all of the pre-defined assessment criteria.

LIMITATIONS

The search techniques may have missed some studies and publication bias cannot be ruled out.

CONCLUSIONS

The existing literature confirms sexual dysfunction as a possible adverse event of all antidepressants, but it is not sufficiently robust to support claims for differences in the incidence of drug-induced sexual dysfunctions between existing antidepressant therapies. Prescribing decisions should be based on a careful assessment of the benefits and risks of therapy in the individual patient.

Predictors of response to pharmacotherapy with citalopram in obsessive-compulsive disorder

Although serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) are the medications of choice in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), only 50-60% of patients respond to a single trial of any of these agents. Improved knowledge of the predictors of response to treatment may have important clinical implications. Data from a large randomized placebo-controlled trial of citalopram in OCD was analysed using logistic regression to determine predictors of response. Demographic (age, sex), clinical (OCD severity and duration, depression severity, prior treatment) and trial variables (citalopram dose, treatment duration) were included. Subjects with longer duration of OCD, more severe OCD symptoms or previous selective SRI use were less likely to be responders in the citalopram trial. In contrast, subjects who received adequate medication doses for sufficient periods of time in the citalopram trial were more likely to be responders. Despite greater awareness of OCD in recent years, there is evidence that the disorder continues to be underdiagnosed and undertreated. The data here emphasize the crucial importance of early diagnosis and treatment of OCD, and of pharmacotherapy with appropriate dose and duration.

Escitalopram (S-enantiomer of citalopram): clinical efficacy and onset of action predicted from a rat model

Escitalopram is the active S-enantiomer of citalopram. In a chronic mild stress model of depression in rats, treatments with both escitalopram and citalopram were effective; however, a faster time to onset of efficacy compared to vehicle treatment was observed for escitalopram-treated (5 mg/kg/day) than for citalopram-treated (10 mg/kg/day) rats at Week 1. To study the predictability of this observation in the clinic, we analysed 4-week data from an 8-week, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, flexible-dose study that compared escitalopram and citalopram to placebo in primary care patients with major depressive disorder (baseline Montgomery and Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) scores > or =22 and < or =40). Since the flexible dosing started after Week 4, analysis of 4-week data ensured that the patients received fixed doses of 10 mg/day escitalopram (155 patients), 20 mg/day citalopram (160 patients), or placebo (154 patients). The efficacy analysis showed a significantly superior therapeutic effect for escitalopram versus placebo from Week 1 onwards (observed cases) with an adjusted mean change in MADRS at Week 4 (last observation carried forward) of 2.7 points (P=0.002). By comparison, 20 mg/day citalopram did not demonstrate a statistically significant effect compared to placebo. Escitalopram was well tolerated with an adverse event profile similar to that of citalopram. The preclinical observation that escitalopram possesses a faster time to onset of efficacy than citalopram was also seen in primary care patients with major depressive disorder. Thus, escitalopram is efficacious in depression and the effect occurs earlier than for citalopram.

A meta-analysis of the efficacy and tolerability of paroxetine versus tricyclic antidepressants in the treatment of major depression

This meta-analysis examined efficacy and tolerability data from 39 randomized, double-blind, parallel-group studies comparing paroxetine (n = 1924) with clomipramine (n = 141) or other tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs; n = 1693) in the treatment of major depression. Paroxetine had comparable antidepressant efficacy to TCAs, including clomipramine, as assessed by response rates based on a < or = 50% reduction in Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAMD) total score (58-66%) and a HAMD total score < or = 8 (38-48%) at endpoint, and absolute improvements in HAMD total score (mean change 12.3-14.5). Absolute improvements in HAMD anxiety factor scores were similar between paroxetine and clomipramine (mean change 2.3 versus 2.4, P = 0.566), but paroxetine was statistically significantly more effective on this measure than other TCAs (mean change 2.3 versus 2.1, P = 0.028). The proportion of patients who experienced adverse events with > 1% incidence was statistically significantly lower with paroxetine than with clomipramine (64% versus 77%, P = 0.02) or other TCAs (64% versus 71%, P < 0.001). The incidence of patient withdrawals due to adverse events was also statistically significantly lower with paroxetine than with clomipramine (17% versus 27%, P = 0.014), but an advantage seen for paroxetine over other TCAs (17% versus 20%, P = 0.130) did not reach statistical significance. These findings demonstrate that paroxetine has comparable efficacy to and better tolerability than TCAs, including clomipramine, and is therefore an appropriate treatment strategy for depression, particularly in the common clinical situation where concomitant anxiety symptoms are present.

Treatment of depression with associated anxiety: comparisons of tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

OBJECTIVE

Evidence indicates that alleviating anxiety symptoms early in the treatment of depression improves treatment compliance, limits treatment discontinuations and contributes to a positive treatment outcome. Because of their sedating effects, the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) have historically been the first-choice agent in treating comorbid depression and anxiety. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) can also be suitable therapy.

METHOD

We reviewed literature regarding the use of TCAs and SSRIs in depressed patients with comorbid anxiety.

RESULTS

SSRIs are at least as effective as TCAs in the treatment of both overall depression as well as anxiety symptoms. TCAs can cause significant and sometimes unacceptable side effects which limit their therapeutic potential. SSRIs, on the other hand, have little or no effect on cholinergic, histaminergic or adrenergic receptors, and have a very favourable tolerability profile.

CONCLUSION

The traditional selection of antidepressants based on the presence or absence of anxiety has little scientific support. In considering the overall risk:benefit ratio, SSRIs should be the first line treatment for depression with associated anxiety.

Citalopram 20 mg, 40 mg and 60 mg are all effective and well tolerated compared with placebo in obsessive-compulsive disorder

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors appear to be uniquely effective treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). This double-blind, placebo-controlled study was the first trial to assess the efficacy of the most selective of the serotonin reuptake inhibitors, citalopram, in OCD. A total of 401 patients were randomized to receive citalopram 20, 40 or 60 mg/day or placebo for 12 weeks. All three doses of citalopram were significantly more effective than placebo measured on the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) change score (P < 0.01). The highest response rate, defined as 25% improvement in Y-BOCS entry score, was observed in the 60 mg group (65%). This compared with 52% and 57.4% in the 40 mg and 20 mg groups. Response rate on placebo was 36.6% (P < 0.05 for all three doses of citalopram compared to placebo). There was no significant difference between the individual doses of citalopram. An advantage was seen for citalopram on the Sheehan Disability Scale compared with placebo (P < 0.05 on all three citalopram groups versus placebo for both the work situation and the family life and home responsibilities and P < 0.05 on citalopram 60 mg and 20 mg versus placebo for the social life and home activities). Citalopram was well tolerated; only 4 to 6 patients in each dose group discontinued the study prematurely due to adverse events.

An assessment of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor discontinuation symptoms with citalopram

The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have recently been associated with a variety of somatic and psychiatric symptoms upon abrupt drug discontinuation. These symptoms have been variously termed SSRI withdrawal, or SSRI discontinuation syndrome. Although all of the available SSRIs have been reported to cause discontinuation symptoms, some appear to have a greater propensity to cause these adverse events than others. Data from a previously completed placebo-controlled, double-blind study designed to assess citalopram in depression relapse prevention were analysed to assess patients for the emergence of discontinuation effects following randomization to placebo after 8 weeks of active drug treatment. Side-effects that occurred during the first 2 weeks following randomization to active drug (n = 150) or placebo (n = 72) were measured using the UKU unwanted side-effect list. The proportion of patients that experienced one or more events over the 2-week period following randomization was similar in the two groups, and there was no association between citalopram dose prior to randomization and the reporting of symptoms. Most of the events that did occur were mild in intensity and none resulted in discontinuation from the study. Events occurring at a higher frequency in the placebo group were most associated with the central nervous system (CNS). These events may reflect a re-emergence of depressive symptoms, since only 14.8% of patients randomized to placebo who did not relapse experienced CNS events, a low symptom incidence that was non-significant (P = 0.562) compared to patients continuing treatment (10.9%). Therefore, this assessment suggests that any symptoms associated with rapid discontinuation of citalopram are mild and transient, and emphasizes the significant role re-emerging depression and / or anxiety may play in the assessment and identification of SSRI discontinuation symptoms.

Disabilities and quality of life in pure and comorbid generalized anxiety disorder and major depression in a national survey

Using a nationally representative sample, this study examines the disease-specific impairments of DSM-IV generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) by comparing them to the impairments associated with major depressive disorder (MDD). Results are based on 4181 respondents between the ages of 18-65 years who were interviewed with the 12-month version of the Munich-Composite International Diagnostic Interview as part of the German National Health Interview and Examination Survey-Mental Health Supplement (GHS). After controlling for age, gender, and other psychopathology, 'pure' current GAD without MDD (n = 33), pure MDD (n = 344) and comorbid GAD and MDD (n = 40) were each associated with high impairment as defined by poor self-perceived health, at least 3 days limited or impaired in the past month, and low quality of life scores [from the Short Form-36 Health Survey (SF-36)]. Quality of life scores on several of the SF-36 scales were significantly lower for respondents with pure GAD as compared to respondents with pure MDD. Overall, the results show that DSM-IV GAD is associated with high impairment even after controlling for other psychopathology. The impairment outcomes for GAD were comparable in size to those for MDD. These findings underline the significance of this disorder from a clinical and social perspective and provide support for the independent diagnostic status of GAD.

Social phobia: diagnosis and epidemiology, neurobiology and pharmacology, comorbidity and treatment

Social phobia is a common disorder associated with significant psychosocial impairment, representing a substantial public health problem largely determined by the high prevalence, and the lifelong chronicity. Social phobia starts in early childhood or adolescence and is often comorbid with depression, other anxiety disorders, alcohol and substance abuse or eating disorders. This cascade of comorbidity, usually secondary to social phobia, increases the disability associated with the condition. The possibility that social phobia may be a trigger for later developing comorbid disorders directs attention to the need for early effective treatment as a preventive measure. The most recent drug class to be investigated for the psychopharmacological treatment of social phobia is the SSRI group for which there is growing support. The other drug classes that have been evaluated are monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), benzodiazepines, and beta-blockers. The SSRIs represent a new and attractive therapeutic choice for patients with generalized social phobia. Recently the first, large scale, placebo-controlled study to assess the efficacy of drug treatment in generalized social phobia has been completed with paroxetine. Paroxetine was more effective in reducing the symptoms than placebo and was well tolerated. Many now regard SSRIs as the drugs of choice in social phobia because of their effectiveness and because they avoid the problems of treatment with benzodiazepines or classical MAOIs.

Pharmacotherapy of depression and mixed states in bipolar disorder

The treatment of bipolar depression requires the resolution of depression and the establishment of mood stability. A basic problem is that the treatments used in treating bipolar depression were developed and proven effective for other disease states: antidepressants for unipolar depression, and mood stabilizers for mania. The panel addressed four unresolved questions regarding depression in relation to bipolar disorder: (1) the relative effectiveness of different antidepressant treatments; (2) the relative likelihood of mood destabilization with different antidepressant treatments; (3) the effectiveness and role of mood-stabilizing medicines as antidepressants; and (4) the optimal approach to mixed states. The selection of an antidepressant depends both on its relative lack of mania- or hypomania-provoking potential and on its effectiveness against bipolar depression. There is little definitive evidence distinguishing effectiveness of the major groups of antidepressive agents, so side-effect profiles and pharmacokinetics are major considerations. The underlying bipolar disorder should be treated with mood stabilizers started simultaneously with any antidepressive treatments. Lithium, divalproex sodium and carbamazepine have all been found to be helpful, to some extent, in treating bipolar depressive episodes as well as for long-term mood stabilization. There is little evidence for long-term benefits of antidepressive agents in bipolar disorder, and some evidence that they may destabilize the disorder. Therefore, in contrast to the long-term use of mood-stabilizers, antidepressant use is recommended on a temporary basis. The duration of antidepressant treatment is determined by past history in terms of liability for mood destabilization, and by the ability of the patient to tolerate gradual antidepressant discontinuation without return of depression. Mixed states, where symptoms of depression and mania coexist, are regarded as a predictor of relatively poor response to lithium, and divalproex has been found to be more effective. Carbamazepine may too be useful in mixed states. Most patients with mixed states in actual practice require combinations of mood stabilizers, though there is little controlled data regarding such co-prescription, especially from a long-term perspective.

Social functioning in depression: a review

OBJECTIVE

This article reviews the available data on social functioning in depression and provides clinical guidelines and opinion on this important and expanding field.

DATA SOURCES

A MEDLINE search was conducted to identify all English-language articles (1988-1999) using the search terms depression and social functioning, depression and social adjustment, depression and psychosocial functioning, and social functioning and antidepressant. Further articles were obtained from the bibliographies of relevant articles.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Depressive disorders are frequently associated with significant and pervasive impairments in social functioning, often substantially worse than those experienced by patients with other chronic medical conditions. The enormous personal, social, and economic impact of depression, due in no small part to the associated impairments in social functioning, is often underappreciated. Both pharmacologic and psychotherapeutic approaches can improve social impairments, although there is a lack of extended, randomized controlled trials in this area using consistent assessment criteria.

CONCLUSION

Despite this lack, it is becoming clear that not all treatments are equally effective in relieving the impaired social functioning associated with depressive disorders. Furthermore, efficacy in relieving the core symptoms of depression does not necessarily guarantee efficacy in relieving impaired social functioning.

New developments in the treatment of depression

Depression is a widespread, recurrent disease that sometimes remains inadequately managed by current drug therapy. There is a need to develop better antidepressants that ideally would have a more rapid onset of action, a higher response rate, and improved long-term efficacy. The latest generation of antidepressants have novel dual modes of action, and the results of recent clinical trials indicate that they may have superior efficacy to established drug therapies such as tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Dual acting drugs, such as venlafaxine, a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, and mirtazapine, a noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant, have been shown to have a rapid onset of action. The long-term efficacy of mirtazapine and of venlafaxine was also found to be superior to that of TCAs. Pindolol was found to accelerate response to SSRI therapy. However, these results were dependent on the patient population. These studies clearly suggest that the latest generation of antidepressants offer a more rapid response to treatment, an improved response rate, and superior long-term efficacy than conventional therapy. The clinical importance of these results should not be overlooked.

Social phobia: diagnosis, severity and implications for treatment

Social phobia has a direct effect on the ability of the individual to interact with others in social or work situations and as a result is associated with a high level of dysfunction. The level of impairment is as severe as that found in other chronic disorders such as depression and is increased by a cascade of comorbidity, which complicates management. Efficacy in social phobia was reported with the MAOIs and this led to the investigation of reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase-A (RIMA) which offer a safer alternative. The efficacy of moclobemide has been shown in social phobia and the effect is more clear cut in patients with more severe symptoms. The better effect in severe social phobia has also been reported with the SSRI paroxetine. Effective treatment of social phobia appears to be able to overcome the substantial chronicity of illness which is frequent in sufferers. The introduction of these treatments should encourage people with social phobia to seek medical help for this hitherto much neglected disorder.

Predicting response: noradrenaline reuptake inhibition

For the past decade, the role of noradrenaline in depression has been somewhat neglected in favour of serotonin. This is largely because of the advent of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, which have facilitated clinical and experimental observation of the roles of serotonin. Until now, no such tools have been available to study the noradrenergic system. However, the recent development of reboxetine, the first selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor, has allowed clinical investigation of the role of the noradrenergic system in different aspects of depressive disorders. In clinical trials, the use of reboxetine has shown that selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibition is an effective approach to alleviating depression. It is more effective than placebo and at least as effective as desipramine, imipramine and fluoxetine in the short term. In addition, its efficacy is maintained in patients with severe depression and in those receiving long-term maintenance treatment. Reboxetine is very well tolerated, as predicted from its pharmacological profile, having fewer anticholinergic side-effects than imipramine or desipramine. Compared with fluoxetine, patients treated with reboxetine experienced less nausea and sexual dysfunction, adverse events that are common among those taking selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Adverse events predicted by the neuroanatomy of the noradrenergic system, such as tremor and cardiovascular effects, occurred less frequently than expected. Clinical experience with reboxetine challenges our current knowledge of the role of noradrenaline in depression and questions existing evidence based on studies with noradrenergic tricyclic antidepressants. Selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibition, as exemplified by reboxetine, therefore offers a significant improvement in antidepressant pharmacotherapy, and an opportunity to increase our understanding of the role of noradrenaline in depression.

Is severe depression a separate indication? ECNP Consensus Meeting September 20, 1996, Amsterdam. European College of Neuropsychopharmacology

There is not an accepted definition of severe depression, but using cut-off scores on rating scales severe depression is considered to lie at one extreme of a continuum of severity. The evidence from epidemiological, biological, and clinical efficacy studies does not support severe depression as a separate illness category. A good response to antidepressants is seen in both moderate and severe depression. The available evidence supports the view that in most cases an effective antidepressant in moderate depression is likely to have efficacy in severe depression. Few studies have found differences between antidepressants in their efficacy in treating severe depression. Most evidence of differential efficacy derives from studies of clomipramine, which is perceived as a particularly potent antidepressant by many clinicians. Other tricyclic antidepressants do not appear to have an advantage in severe depression. Separate studies to demonstrate efficacy in severe depression are not necessary for the registration of a new antidepressant. However if efficacy in severe depression is demonstrated in separate studies this information could be included in the summary of product characteristics to provide guidance to clinicians.

Alternatives to placebo-controlled trials in psychiatry. ECNP Consensus Meeting, September 26, 1996, Amsterdam. European College of Neuropsychopharmacology

Patients receiving placebo do not merely receive an inert substance but also receive support, concern, and reassurance that assists the therapeutic alliance and encourages the positive attitude that forms the basis of cognitive treatment. Response to non-specific factors is seen in all fields of medicine but is particularly potent in psychiatry. The placebo response is variable across settings and across time and is unpredictable. Historical data cannot therefore provide an adequate control for treatment effects in studies of new drugs. The scientific position is clear that a comparison against placebo is required for the unequivocal demonstration of the efficacy of a treatment. Evidence from at least two positive well designed and conducted placebo-controlled studies is generally accepted as appropriate to establish the efficacy of a drug. Attention to diagnosis, severity of illness, and to possible comorbid conditions is needed in the design and conduct of placebo-controlled studies in order to optimise the chance of obtaining valid data. The use of all data obtained, including dropouts due to lack of efficacy, should be maximised. The use of placebo may not be possible in some conditions that represent medical emergencies or may be difficult to justify in serious disorders where an effective treatment has already been established. Alternative designs to placebo-controlled studies can be considered. Consistent superior efficacy compared with a well accepted, effective treatment, given in an easily defended dose, is considered to be good evidence of efficacy provided that the studies are well designed and well conducted. Evidence of superior efficacy to an established effective comparator treatment may be regarded as evidence of efficacy. The demonstration of a dose-response relationship where one dose is found to be significantly better than another, can be taken as evidence for efficacy, particularly where there is already placebo-controlled evidence of the efficacy of the identified dose. Where a new treatment is found, under controlled conditions, to be equivalent to an existing well accepted comparator treatment, given at a clearly effective dose, this may be taken as evidence of efficacy, but only if the comparator is consistently superior to placebo and if equivalence has been defined beforehand. The claims for efficacy based on results from equivalence studies are less easily sustained than the evidence from placebo-controlled studies or studies demonstrating superior efficacy, due to the fact that those studies have no internal validation.

The failure of placebo-controlled studies. ECNP Consensus Meeting, September 13, 1997, Vienna. European College of Neuropsychopharmacology

In recent years an increasing number of clinical trials to test the efficacy of new potential treatments have failed to demonstrate a difference from placebo for either the new treatment or for an established reference drug. A rise in the response rate to placebo observed in a range of psychiatric disorders has not been paralleled by a rise in the response to drug and small effect sizes make it difficult to establish significant differences. A number of factors are thought to contribute to the rising placebo response or the smaller effect sizes. These include differences over time in the populations studied, changes in investigator behaviour, and failures of trial design. The inclusion of a greater number of patients with mild disorder or whose disorder has a fluctuating course is thought likely to increase the placebo response rates. Close attention needs to be paid to patient selection in terms of diagnosis, severity and absence of confounding comorbidity such as alcoholism, personality disorders or brief depression. The rising placebo response is associated with an increasing variability of placebo response seen in some centres. The ability of some centres to select appropriate patients for studies to demonstrate a separation of reference treatment and placebo and the inability of other centres suggests that a more careful selection of investigators is important. Selection should be based on their experience, their record from previous studies, and their aptitude for being trained. The inclusion of a reference treatment arm provides a useful means to judge the performance of individual centres. The exclusion of eccentric centres that fail to reach predetermined performance criteria, such as a failure to separate reference treatment from placebo, may be considered. Trial designs need to qualify adequately the study population and pay sufficient attention to diagnosis, minimum severity and comorbidity at entry. Greater care is needed in excluding concomitant overt or covert psychotherapy and in reducing the unnecessary therapeutic contact that has been increased unwittingly by some protocols. Identifying patients with prior stability of illness, with clear disability, and with a minimum severity at entry is likely to lower the placebo response substantially and increase the effect size and power of the study. The possible influence of comedication should also be considered. The inclusion of a placebo run in period is considered unhelpful and the use of better statistical techniques should be adopted to maximise the sensitivity of the study and increase the chances of testing efficacy.

Chairman's overview. The place of reboxetine in antidepressant therapy

A comprehensive series of clinical trials have compared the unique selective NRI reboxetine with placebo and with the TCAs imipramine and desipramine, as well as with the SSRI fluoxetine. Reboxetine is clearly effective in both the short and the long term compared with placebo. Against comparator antidepressants, reboxetine is at least as effective in the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder in the adult and the elderly population and offers a significant advantage over imipramine in the treatment of melancholic patients. In severely depressed patients, reboxetine was significantly more effective than fluoxetine. Reboxetine also offers significant advantages over fluoxetine in terms of social functioning and has a significantly improved adverse event profile compared with TCAs. In comparison with fluoxetine, reboxetine has a different adverse event profile, but shows advantages in terms of agitation/nervousness/anxiety and gastrointestinal events. Reboxetine is not cardiotoxic, and it is not associated with an increased risk of seizures or of orthostatic hypotension. Overall, reboxetine offers a significant safety advantage over TCAs in the treatment of the depressed population and in subsets of the depressed population in an efficacy comparison with the SSRI fluoxetine.

Efficacy and safety of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treating depression in elderly patients

The response to antidepressants is not limited by age and there are sufficient data from the clinical trial databases to support the view that antidepressants are effective in both younger and older patients. Depression is common in the elderly although it may frequently be overlooked. Management is complicated by physiological changes associated with ageing and also by the increased likelihood of comorbid physical illness. These factors have to be taken into consideration in selecting antidepressants for the treatment of elderly patients. The older tricyclic antidepressants are associated with well known anticholinergic effects that may be a particular problem for the elderly and can have serious consequences. The development of newer antidepressants has focused on compounds that are more selective in their pharmacological effects with the aim of reducing the unwanted effects. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have a more benign side-effect profile and are better tolerated than the older tricyclic antidepressants. There are relatively few studies carried out specifically in an elderly population but the efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors has been shown both in specific studies in the elderly and in the analyses of elderly patients included in clinical trials of new antidepressants. Their efficacy and improved safety and tolerability profile recommend them for use in the treatment of depression in elderly patients.

Implications of the severity of social phobia

This paper presents a post hoc analysis of a recent large, 12-week, placebo-controlled trial of paroxetine in the treatment of social phobia, which analyzes subgroups of patients classified as suffering from severe (Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale [LSAS] total score > or = 82, n = 85) or moderate (LSAS total score 52-81, n = 78) social phobia. With respect to the reduction in LSAS total score, the paroxetine-placebo difference was greater in patients in the severe subgroup (20.0, P < 0.001) than those in the moderate subgroup (13.7, P < 0.02). Likewise, for the number of patients rated as 'very much' or 'much' improved according to their Clinical Global Impressions improvement scores, the paroxetine-placebo difference was greater in the severe subgroup (34.2%, P < 0.001) than in the moderate subgroup (29.1%, P < 0.02). In conclusion, paroxetine is effective compared with placebo in both moderate and severe social phobia, and the response is more clear cut in patients with more severe symptoms.

Depression: a long-term illness and its treatment

Depression is a common illness that is frequently chronic or recurring. It is associated with substantial disability and therefore treatment strategies need to take into account its long-term course. The risk of relapse can be reduced provided therapy is adequate, in terms of both duration and dose, and there is now good evidence for some antidepressants that long-term treatment also reduces the risk of recurrence (i.e. new episodes of depression). This aspect of efficacy has been investigated most thoroughly with the tricyclic antidepressant imipramine and with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The clearest demonstration of the ability to reduce the risk of new episodes of depression is obtained from studies designed to test prophylaxis specifically in patients who have responded to antidepressant treatment and who have maintained their response during a period of continuation treatment to ensure resolution of the episode. The long-term efficacy of imipramine and fluoxetine was demonstrated using this design. More recently fluvoxamine was shown to be effective in reducing the risk of new episodes in a 1-year study in patients whose acute episode of depression had responded to treatment with fluvoxamine and who had remained well for 18 weeks. These prophylactic studies show that antidepressants reduce the risk of new episodes of depression, and prophylactic treatment should therefore be continued as long as the risk persists.

Mirtazapine versus amitriptyline in the long-term treatment of depression: a double-blind placebo-controlled study

Of 580 patients randomly assigned to short-term, double-blind treatment with either mirtazapine, amitriptyline or placebo, a total of 217 patients clinically judged to be responders subsequently continued on the same medication for up to 2 years in the long-term treatment study (mirtazapine, n = 74; amitriptyline, n = 86 and placebo, n = 57). The efficacy of mirtazapine in relapse prevention was seen in an analysis of the first 20 weeks data. Significantly fewer patients relapsed during treatment with mirtazapine compared with placebo (p < 0.05), and a significantly longer time to relapse was shown on the survival analysis. There was a significant advantage for amitriptyline compared with placebo in the first 20 weeks, with fewer patients relapsing. There was a significant advantage for mirtazapine compared with amitriptyline at 20 weeks seen on the survival analysis (p < 0.05). The significant advantage for mirtazapine compared with placebo was also seen in the prophylactic phase of treatment after 20 weeks. At the endpoint there were significantly more patients in the placebo group with a return of symptoms and significantly fewer showing sustained response. Amitriptyline was better than placebo with fewer patients suffering a recurrence of symptoms, but there was no difference from placebo in the proportion of patients with sustained response. Mirtazapine was well tolerated with a side-effect profile similar to that of placebo. The only adverse event reported significantly more frequently on mirtazapine than on placebo was weight gain. Objectively measured weight gain was more frequent with amitriptyline (22% of patients) compared with mirtazapine (13% of patients). Amitriptyline was associated with significantly more adverse events than either mirtazapine or placebo, in particular sedative and anticholinergic side effects. The efficacy of mirtazapine in reducing the risk of relapse and the recurrence of depression, which on some measures showed an advantage compared with amitriptyline, coupled with its improved side-effect profile, commends this antidepressant for the long-term treatment of depression.

Fluvoxamine prevents recurrence of depression: results of a long-term, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

This double-blind placebo-controlled study specifically tested the efficacy of fluvoxamine, at a dose of 100 mg a day, in reducing the risk of new episodes of depression. Out of 436 patients treated openly with fluvoxamine 283 patients fulfilled stringent criteria to define responders at 6 weeks. A total of 204 patients maintained their remission throughout a continuation treatment period of 18 weeks and then entered the prophylactic study. They were randomly assigned to receive either fluvoxamine 100 mg a day or placebo for 1 year. There were significantly fewer recurrences of new episodes of depression in the fluvoxamine group compared with the placebo group (p < 0.001). The significant advantage for fluvoxamine was also seen in the Kaplan-Meier analysis of time to recurrence (p < 0.001). The clear-cut efficacy of 100 mg of fluvoxamine and the good tolerability and side-effect profile demonstrated in this study support the view that fluvoxamine is particularly suitable for maintenance or prophylactic treatment.

Side effects, dropouts from treatment and cost consequences

Estimating the cost of treatment of depression has to take into account the quantifiable direct costs of medication, and hospital and community care, and the indirect costs such as loss of productivity, unemployment, costs of social support, etc. It also has to take into account the intangible costs to the depressed individual which are more difficult to quantify. Depression is a long-term illness and is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality which contribute substantially to the indirect costs of the illness. Successful treatment can be expected to reduce the overall costs of depression to the individual and to society at large. Compliance with treatment is an essential factor in the successful treatment of depression. Meta-analyses of published papers have indicated that significantly more patients discontinue treatment with tricyclic antidepressants due to side effects than with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and therefore better tolerated antidepressants should be the first choice of treatment. Pharmacoeconomic studies that take account of the failure of treatment represented by the discontinuations due to side effects show that an apparently cheaper antidepressant like imipramine may turn out to be more expensive than the better tolerated antidepressants.

Reboxetine: additional benefits to the depressed patient

Reboxetine is a new selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor that has been shown to be effective in both the short-(4-8 weeks) and long-term (up to 12 months) treatment of depression. Four positive placebo-controlled studies showed reboxetine to have significant antidepressant efficacy; the response rate (> or = 50% decrease in HAM-D total score) with reboxetine ranging from 56-74%. Comparator-controlled trials showed reboxetine to be at least as efficacious as imipramine and desipramine in both adults and elderly patients. Reboxetine is also as effective as fluoxetine in the overall depressed population. However, subset analysis showed reboxetine to be significantly superior to fluoxetine in severely depressed patients. Reboxetine also showed significant advantages over fluoxetine in terms of social functioning, positively affecting patients' self perception and motivation towards action. The therapeutic effect of reboxetine is maintained for at least up to 1 year. During long-term therapy, 78% of patients receiving reboxetine were in remission at last assessment compared with only 45% of patients in the placebo group. Fewer reboxetine-treated patients relapsed (22%) compared with those receiving placebo (56%). In summary, reboxetine is effective in both the short- and long-term treatment of depression, and is at least as efficacious as traditional tricyclic antidepressant drugs and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The additional benefits offered by reboxetine to the depressed patient include effective long-term treatment, efficacy in all grades of depression (including severe cases) and, importantly, specific advantages on social functioning. These additional benefits make reboxetine a favourable choice in the management of depression.

Suicide and antidepressants

Suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts are an integral part of various depressions. Suicide attempts are common in major depression but even more common in recurrent brief depression, and the rate is further increased when these depressions occur comorbidly. Combined depression, where recurrent brief depression and major depression coexist, is the strongest clinical predictor of suicide attempts in the literature. There have been very few controlled studies of treatments for depression in high-risk groups of suicide attempters. Psychotherapy has been found to significantly raise the suicide attempt rate compared with conventional treatment, whereas fluoxetine and mianserin were not different from placebo. The only treatment that has been found to lower the suicide attempt rate in those with a history of previous suicide attempts is low doses of flupenthixol, a neuroleptic licensed for depression in Europe. This drug had a significant advantage compared with placebo in a six-month study. There are indications from large studies that maprotiline and amitriptyline might raise the suicide attempt rate, compared with placebo or other antidepressants, independent of their inherent toxicity in overdose. Several analyses of coroners' data show that tricyclic antidepressants are associated with high and unacceptable death rates in overdose compared with SSRIs and other safer antidepressants. Toxic antidepressants should be avoided in those thought to be at particular risk.

Social phobia: the need for treatment

Social phobia is associated with a high level of dysfunction because of the direct effect the disorder has on the ability of the individual to interact with others in social or work situations. The level of impairment and disability is seen to be as severe as and, in some cases, more severe than is seen in other chronic disorders such as depression. The disability is increased by a cascade of comorbidity which appears, in almost all cases, to be secondary to the social phobia. This paper discusses different treatment modalities and details the efficacy of moclobemide in both short- and long-term treatment. A subanalysis of those with severe to most severe social phobia at the start of treatment shows that efficacy is more clearly seen in the severe group compared with those with moderate severity. The clinical relevance of those findings is discussed here.

Brain 5-HT function in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prolactin responses to d-fenfluramine

BACKGROUND

Drugs that potentiate brain serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission are effective in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), but it is unclear whether disturbances in brain 5-HT function play a role in the pathophysiology of OCD.

METHOD

We studied the prolactin response to the selective 5-HT releasing agent d-fenfluramine in 14 non-depressed, drug-free OCD patients, and 14 healthy controls matched for age and gender.

RESULTS

The prolactin response to d-fenfluramine was significantly increased in OCD patients compared with controls.

CONCLUSIONS

The disparate results of studies of 5-HT neuroendocrine function in OCD make it unlikely that disturbances of brain 5-HT function play a central role in the pathophysiology of OCD. Increased brain 5-HT neurotransmission in non-depressed OCD subjects may represent an adaptive neurobehavioural mechanism which can be amplified to therapeutic advantage by treatment with 5-HT potentiating drugs.

Social phobia: long-term treatment outcome and prediction of response--a moclobemide study

In this open, prospective, structured, naturalistic study of the efficacy of long-term treatment in social phobia 93 consecutive outpatients suffering from severe generalized or circumscribed social phobia (median Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale score 83) and a high degree of concomitant psychiatric disease were administered treatment with moclobemide (712 +/- 75 mg/day at steady state). Fifty-nine patients who responded (Clinical Global Impression for Change: very much/much improved) completed 2 years of treatment. Patients then entered a drug-free period of at least 1 month during which 88% of the patients deteriorated. In a further 2-year treatment period with moclobemide those patients who had deteriorated became responders again. Symptoms recurred in a substantial number of the patients at the end of the study when the dose was reduced and then discontinued. Post-study follow up at 6-24 months after study completion found that 63.2% of patients were almost asymptomatic or had only mild symptoms, 15.8% were off all treatment, 28.1% were back on moclobemide, 10.6% were taking another psychotropic drug and 8.8% were in psychotherapy. All previous non-responders to moclobemide and mostly alcohol abusers (36.9%), had moderate or severe social phobia and were off all treatment (13.3%), on psychotherapy (15.9%) or on another psychotropic drug (8.8%). Discriminant analysis correctly predicted outcome in 93.5% of all patients. Alcohol abuse was by far the strongest predictor of negative outcome. Coexisting generalized anxiety disorder and dysthymia were less potent in this regard, whereas high baseline Hamilton anxiety or depression scale scores, circumscribed social phobia, or social phobia unassociated with avoidant personality disorder were predictors of a positive outcome. In conclusion, severe social phobia can be successfully treated in the long-term but many patients may need medication or psychotherapy for many years. Treatment should start as early as possible because complications such as alcohol abuse make treatment difficult.

Fast-onset antidepressants

Research on accelerating the response to antidepressants has focused attention on the possibility of fast-acting antidepressants. A major advance has been the development of methodology for identifying rapid-response antidepressants. Such antidepressants are likely to be widely used in the future and should bring considerable relief to sufferers and to the community. How rapid the action of these drugs will be is not yet clear. Careful methodology and well conducted studies are needed to clarify the issues involved.

Is there a role for a pure noradrenergic drug in the treatment of depression?

Depression is thought to result from a dysfunction in the noradrenergic or serotonergic systems. The noradrenergic system appears to be associated with increased drive, whereas the serotonergic system relates more to changes in mood and it is possible that the different symptoms of depression may benefit from drugs acting mainly on one or other of the neurotransmitter systems. A series of studies has shown that interruption of serotonin synthesis compromises the efficacy of serotonin but not noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, and interruption of noradrenaline synthesis compromises the efficacy of noradrenaline but not serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). This suggests that the two classes of drugs owe their activity to functional changes in different neurotransmitter systems. Reboxetine represents a new class of drugs-the selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (NARIs). It acts specifically at noradrenergic sites unlike the non-selective tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). NARIs have a role in the treatment of depression, either alone or as adjunctive therapy.

Milnacipran, a new serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor: an overview of its antidepressant activity and clinical tolerability

Milnacipran (Ixel) is a new antidepressant with essentially equal potency for inhibiting the reuptake of both serotonin and noradrenaline, with no affinity for any neurotransmitter receptor studied. A review of the studies comparing milnacipran, placebo and active comparator antidepressants provides clear-cut evidence of its efficacy in both severe and moderate depression in hospitalized and community settings. Meta-analyses of the original data of controlled trials involving 1032 patients, comparing milnacipran with imipramine or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), show that milnacipran provides antidepressant efficacy similar to that of imipramine and significantly superior to that of the SSRIs. An analysis of a database of over 3300 patients shows that both the general and cardiovascular tolerability of milnacipran are superior to those of the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) with fewer cholinergic side-effects. The tolerability of milnacipran was comparable to that of the SSRIs, with a higher incidence of dysuria with milnacipran, and a higher frequency of nausea and anxiety with the SSRIs. Milnacipran is a new therapeutic option in depression, which offers a clinical efficacy in the range of the TCAs combined with a tolerability equivalent to that of the SSRIs.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in older patients. A tolerability perspective

Depression is a serious illness that is common in the elderly but which is frequently overlooked. Management is complicated by physiological changes associated with aging, the presence of comorbid physical illness, and compliance problems; these factors must be taken into account when selecting an appropriate antidepressant. The well known problems associated with the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) [i.e. their unwanted anticholinergic, adrenergic and histaminergic effects], which are troublesome in younger patients, can have serious consequences for elderly depressed patients. The TCAs can cause symptoms that worsen concomitant physical illness, which is frequently present in the elderly, and their cardiotoxicity in overdose is of concern in both younger and older patients. The selective serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) reuptake inhibitors have been shown to be as efficacious as the TCAs in the general depressed population, but to lack the anticholinergic adverse effects and cardiotoxicity associated with those drugs. Their increased safety and tolerability makes them a preferred treatment for depressed elderly patients.

Prevalence of anxiety disorders comorbidity in bipolar depression, unipolar depression and dysthymia

Eighty-seven patients with current episode of depression were assessed by the SCID-P and subdivided in bipolar depressives (N = 24), unipolar depressives (n = 38) and dysthymics (n = 25). Anxiety disorders comorbidity in these three groups was investigated by means of the SCID-P. Panic disorder comorbidity was found in 36.8% of bipolar depressives, 31.4% of unipolar depressives and 13% of dysthymics. Prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder was 21.1% in bipolars, 14.3% in unipolars and 8.7% in dysthymics. Generalized anxiety disorder resulted in being much more associated with dysthymia (65.2%) than with bipolar (31.6%) or unipolar depression (37.1%). Social phobia comorbidity was exhibited mainly by unipolars (11.4%), while no cases were detected in the bipolar group. Odds ratios revealed that generalized anxiety disorder is significantly more likely to co-occur with dysthymia. Panic disorder showed a higher trend to be associated with bipolar and unipolar depression. Social phobia was more frequent among unipolar depression.