Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Conjugated with Andrographolide Ameliorated Viper (Daboia russellii russellii) Venom-Induced Toxicities in Animal Model

Andrographolide, a diterpenoid compound found in the aerial parts of Andrographis paniculata (a well known anti snake venom plant) was conjugated with gold nanoparticle (andrographolide-AuNPs) and its efficacy against Daboia russellii russellii venom (DRRV) induced local damage, organ toxicity and inflammatory response was evaluated in animal models. Ethical clearance was obtained before animal experiments. Andrographolide-AuNPs was formed by adsorption method. Physico-chemical characterization of particle was done by dynamic light scattering (DLS), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Swiss albino male mice were divided into 5 groups: Gr. 1-Sham control, Gr. 2-DRRV control, Gr. 3-anti snake venom serum treated, Gr. 4-andrographolide treated and Gr. 4-andrographolide-AuNPs treated. 1/5th minimum lethal dose of DRRV (10 μg/s.c./20 g mice) was induced in animals of group 2, 3, 4 and 5 animals, followed by treatment with anti snake venom serum (2 mg/20 g mice, i.v.) andrographolide (50 μg/20g mice, i.p.) and andrographolide-AuNPs (50 μg/20 g mice, i.v.) in group 3, 4 and 5 animals, respectively. Blood was collected after 18 h, serum was prepared and organ toxicity markers (transaminases, phosphatases, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine phosphate, urea, creatinine, Ca²⁺, phosphorous), inflammatory markers (interleukin 1β, 6, 17a, 10, tumor necrosis factor α) and local damage testings (defibrination, edema, hemorrhage) were assessed. Values were expressed as mean ± SEM (n = 4), one way analysis of variance was done, P < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Formed andrographolide-AuNPs were pink in color with hydrodynamic diameter 30-50 nm, polydispersity index 0.412 and zeta potential -16.21 mV. XRD data confirmed the presence of crystalline gold in andrographolide-AuNPs. TEM (20-50 nm) and FE-SEM (20-25 nm) indicated the presence of nearly spherical particle. DRRV envenomation followed by treatment with andrographolide-AuNPs provided protection against venom induced edema, hemorrhage, defibrination, organ toxicity and inflammation in animal model. Venom neutralization by andrographolide-AuNPs was > andrographolide, which confirmed the increased efficacy of andrographolide after gold nanoparticle conjugation, may be due to anti-oxidant/anti-inflammatory activity of andrographolide, showing increased efficacy after gold nanoparticle tagging. Thus, andrographolide-AuNPs may serve as a supportive therapy in snakebite (against venom induced local damage, organ toxicity and inflammatory response) subject to further detail studies.

Black Tea (Camellia sinensis) Extract Induced Prenatal and Postnatal Toxicity in Experimental Albino rats

Background

Tea (Camellia sinensis) being the most widely drank beverage and despite having numerous beneficial role toward health and disease, its safety evaluation during pregnancy and prenatal, postnatal developmental period need to be monitored.

Objective

This study was to evaluate the toxicity of black tea extract (BTE) in experimental pregnant rats and on their pups during prenatal and postnatal developmental periods.

Materials and Methods

Pregnant female (120 ± 10 g) Wister albino rats were chosen for this study. Group 1 was control group where pregnant female rats were treated with saline. Group 2 and Group 3 were pregnant female rats treated with 50 mg and 100 mg BTE/kg/day, respectively, throughout prenatal and postnatal periods. All three groups of rats were provided food and drinking water ad libitum. Animals were examined through their urinary and serum parameters, histopathological studies, and biomorphometric studies in pups. All data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation with significance between the controls and the treated groups (n = 6). Collected data were subjected to the analysis of variance and Tukey test; P < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant.

Results

BTE produced significant alterations in urinary calcium, creatinine, and urea during prenatal period; exhibited proteinuria, ketonuria, and histology showed nephrotoxicity during postnatal period, and BTE also showed a significant increase in serum proinflammatory cytokines and decreased anti-inflammatory cytokines level compared to control group. BTE caused significant changes in biomorphometric parameters in the pups as compared with pups of control mothers.

Conclusion

This study confirmed the BTE-induced toxicity in pregnant rats and their pups.

SUMMARY

Black tea (Camellia sinensis) is the most widely drank beverage. This study was to evaluate the toxicity BTE in experimental pregnant rats and on their pups during prenatal and postnatal developmental periods. Animals were examined through their urinary and serum parameters, histopathological studies, and biomorphometric studies in pups. BTE.induced toxicity in pregnant rats and their pups. Abbreviations used: BTE: Black tea extract, IL-1α: Interleukin 1 alpha, IL-1 β: Interleukin 1 beta, IL-6: Interleukin 6, IL-10: Interleukin 10, TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor alpha.

Protection against osteoarthritis in experimental animals by nanogold conjugated snake venom protein toxin gold nanoparticle-Naja kaouthia cytotoxin 1

Background & objectives:

Increased severity of osteoarthritis (OA) and adverse side effects of its treatment led to the search for alternative therapies. It was previously reported that snake venom protein toxin Naja kaouthia cytotoxin 1 (NKCT1) and gold nanoparticle (GNP) individually have potential against excremental arthritis. In this study, we analyzed the protective activity of GNP conjugated protein toxin NKCT1 (GNP-NKCT1) against experimental OA.

Methods:

Gold nanoparticle conjugation with NKCT1 (GNP-NKCT1) was done and its physiochemical properties were studied. OA was induced in male albino rats by intra-articular injection of bacterial collagenase and treatment was done with NKCT1/GNP-NKCT1/standard drug (indomethacin). Physical parameter (ankle diameter), urinary markers (hydroxyproline, glucosamine, pyridinoline, deoxypyridinoline), serum and synovial membrane pro-inflammatory markers [tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-17, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)] and matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP1) were measured. Joint histopathology and scanning electron microscopy imaging of articular cartilage surface were also done.

Results:

Physical parameters, urinary markers, serum and synovial membrane pro-inflammatory makers and MMP1 were increased in arthritic rats and significantly restored after GNP-NKCT1/NKCT1 treatment. Joint histopathology and scanning electron microscopy imaging of articular cartilage surface also indicated the protective effect of GNP-NKCT1 against inflammatory response and cartilage degradation in osteoarthritic rats.

Interpretation & conclusions:

In this study restoration of the arthritic markers and bone degradation by GNP-NKCT1 treatment indicated the anti-osteoarthritic property of GNP-NKCT1. Further studies need to be done to confirm these findings.

Anti-osteoarthritic activity of Bungarus fasciatus venom fraction BF-F47 involving molecular markers in the rats

A heat stable protein BF-F47 was purified from the crude venom of Bungarus fasciatus by CM cellulose ion exchange chromatography and HPLC. Osteoarthritis (OA) was developed in male albino Wistar rats by collagenase injection. BF-F47 treatment significantly restored urinary hydroxyproline and glucosamine in OA rats. Serum acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, creatinine and serum molecular markers TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-17, cytokine induced neutrophil chemoattractant-1, matrix metalloproteinase-1, cathepsin-K, osteocalcin and PGE2 were also significantly altered. BF-F47 showed partial restoration of osteoarthritis joints. Thus, BF-F47 induced anti-osteoarthritic activity in Wistar rats acted through molecular markers of arthritis and inflammation.

Effect of Naja naja Laurenti shed skin extract on estrous cycle, hormone - cytokine profiles, histopathology of ovary and uterus of Swiss albino mice

The snake shed skin though considered as biological waste products have been mentioned in folk and traditional medicine for treatment of ailments like skin disorders, parturition problems etc. Shedded skin extract (5 mg.kg-1, sc) did not produce any change in the estrous cycle of normal cycling female mice. However in 10 mg.kg-1, sc dose, the extract caused a temporary cessation of the estrous cycle at diestrous phase in normal cycling female mice for 10 days. SSAE (10 mg.kg-1, sc) caused a significant change in the level of LH, FSH, progesterone, estradiol, IL-beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha. Histopathology of uterus and ovary showed structural disorientation in both. The results substantiate the influence of snake shed skin in mice reproductive cycle.

Ethno biological usage of zoo products in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is one of the most common autoimmune disorder which causes swelling, redness, pain, stiffness, restriction of limb movements, decreases life expectancy and early death of the patients. Available drugs include non steroidal anti-inflammatory and analgesics, disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs and steroids (glucocorticoids etc). All these drugs have their own limitations such as gastrointestinal irritations, cardiovascular problems, and drug dependency. Search for alternative therapy from natural products are being ventured throughout the world. Zoo therapy in arthritis, a common practice of the ancient times that have been mentioned in traditional and folk medicine. The scientific basis of some of the zoo products are being explored and have been showing promising results in experimental rheumatoid arthritis. These therapies have minimum side effects and many of them have potential to give rise to drug development clues against rheumatoid arthritis. The present review is an effort to establish the folk and traditional treatment of rheumatoid arthritis using zoo products.

Anticancer potential of animal venoms and toxins

Anticancer drug development from natural resources are ventured throughout the world. Animal venoms and toxins a potential bio resource and a therapeutic tool were known to man for centuries through folk and traditional knowledge. The biodiversity of venoms and toxins made it a unique source of leads and structural templates from which new therapeutic agents may be developed. Venoms of several animal species (snake, scorpion, toad, frog etc) and their active components (protein and non protein toxins, peptides, enzymes, etc) have shown therapeutic potential against cancer. In the present review, the anticancer potential of venoms and toxins from snakes, scorpions, toads and frogs has been discussed. Some of these molecules are in the clinical trials and may find their way towards anticancer drug development in the near future. The implications of combination therapy of natural products in cancer have been discussed.

Antiproliferative, cytotoxic and apoptogenic activity of Indian toad (Bufo melanostictus, Schneider) skin extract on U937 and K562 cells

The antiproliferative, cytotoxic and apoptogenic activities of Bufo melanostictus (Indian common toad) skin extract (TSE) on U937 and K562 leukemic cell line has been investigated. TSE significantly (P<0.001) reduced the time-dependent cell proliferation and decreased MTT values in U937 and K562 cells. TSE (IC50 doses) suppressed the proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression in both the cells. It was demonstrated that, TSE (IC50 doses) primarily arrested the U937 and K562 cells at G1 phase of the cell cycle. Confocal microscopy showed the altered fragmented nuclei and apoptotic bodies formation in TSE (IC50 doses) treated U937 and K562 cells. Membrane blebbing, cell surface shrinkage and perforation were observed through scanning electron microscope. TSE-induced DNA fragmentation in U937 and K562 cells was reflected in single-cell gel electrophoresis. TSE significantly (P<0.001) increase the length-width ratio of DNA mass as compared to control in comet assay. The flow cytometric analysis of annexin-V binding to the cancer cells further supported the apoptotogenic activity of TSE. The effect of TSE on normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells viability and cytotoxicity was studied in culture and found to be less cytotoxic than on the U937 and K562 cells. The findings from the present study suggested that TSE might possess potent antineoplastic agent having antiproliferative, cytotoxic and apoptogenic activity against U937 and K562 myeloid leukemic cells.

Occurrence of non-protein low molecular weight cardiotoxin in Indian King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) Cantor 1836, venom

Pathophysiology due to snakebite is a combined effect of various actions of the complex venom constituents. Importance of protein toxins in snake envenomation is well known. The present investigation reports the existence of nonprotein/nonpetide low molecular weight toxin in Indian King Cobra venom, which plays an important role in envenomation consequences in experimental animal models. A group of non-peptidic toxins (OH-NPT1) was isolated from Indian King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah by thin layer chromatography and silica gel column chromatography. UV, IR, NMR and (ESI) TOF-MS studies characterized the OH-NPT1 as a mixture of aliphatic acids having molecular weights 256, 326 and 340Da. The minimum lethal dose of OH-NPT1 was found to be 2.5 microg/20g (iv) and 4microg/20g (ip) in male albino mice. The cardiotoxic property of OH-NPT1 was established through studies on isolated guinea pig heart and auricle preparations, ECG studies in albino rat and estimation of LDH1/LDH and CPK-MB/CPK ratio in Swiss albino mice. Commercial antiserum failed to neutralize the lethality and cardiotoxicity of the toxin. However, calcium and magnesium effectively neutralized the lethal action.

CNS and anticonvulsant activity of a non-protein toxin (KC-MMTx) isolated from King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venom

In the present study, King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venom was subjected to TLC followed by column chromatography/HPLC to isolate and purify a non-protein toxin designated as KC-MMTx. (1)H NMR, IR and EIMS studies showed KC-MMTx likely to be a 282 D unsaturated aliphatic acid having molecular formula C18H34O2. The minimum lethal dose of KC-MMTx was 200 microg/kg (i.v.) and 350 microg/kg (i.p.) in Swiss albino male mice. It significantly increased pentobarbitone induced sleeping time and significantly decreased the body temperature of male albino mice. It provided protection against amphetamine aggregate toxicity in mice but failed to protect amphetamine stereotypy in male albino rats. KC-MMTx provided significant protection against drug (strychnine, pentylenetetrazole, yohimbine) induced convulsions in male albino mice. It increased serum Na+ and decreased serum Ca2+ significantly in male mice. MAO activity and brain neurotransmitter levels in male mice were altered significantly. Further detailed study is warranted on the CNS, anticonvulsant potential of KC-MMTx, which may lead to the development of newer therapeutic tools in the near future.

Lethal, oedema, haemorrhagic activity of spotted butterfish (Scatophagus argus, Linn) sting extract and its neutralization by antiserum and pharmacological antagonists

An attempt has been made in this communication to develop antiserum in rabbit against Scatophagus. argus sting extract. Antiserum did not neutralized the sting extract induced proinflammatory and haemorrhagic activity but successfully neutralized lethality upto 2LD50. Cyproheptadine, indomethacin and BW 755C pretreatment significantly reduced sting extract induced proinflammatory activity. The haemorrhagic activity of sting extract was significantly inhibited by temperature, UV-exposure, EDTA, cyproheptadine, indomethacin and BW 755C pretreatment. The results conclude that the local effects of S.argus venom is likely to be mediated through release of mediators and may be encountered by pharmacological antagonists better than the antiserum.

Isolation of a haemorrhagic protein toxin (SA-HT) from the Indian venomous butterfish (Scatophagus argus, Linn) sting extract

A haemorrhagic protein toxin (SA-HT) was isolated and purified from the spine extract of the Indian venomous butterfish, S. argus Linn, by two step ion exchange chromatography. The toxin was homogeneous in native and SDS-PAGE gel. SDS-molecular weight of the toxin was found to be 18.1 +/- 0.09 kDa. SA-HT produced severe haemorrhage on stomach wall but devoid of cutaneous haemorrhage. UV, EDTA, trypsin, protease, cyproheptadine, indomethacin, acetylsalicylic acid and BW755C treatment significantly antagonized the haemorrhagic activity of SA-HT. The toxin produced dose and time dependent oedema on mice hind paw, which was significantly encountered by cyproheptadine, indomethacin and BW755C. SA-HT increased capillary permeability on guinea pig dorsal flank. On isolated guineapig ileum, rat fundus and uterus, SA-HT produced slow contraction which was completely antagonised by prostaglandin blocker SC19220. On isolated rat duodenum, SA-HT produced slow relaxation. SA-HT significantly increased plasma plasmin, serum MDA level and decreased serum SOD level indicating the possible involvement of cyclooxygenase and lipooxygenase pathway.

Pharmacological studies on the venomous spotted butterfish (Scatophagus argus Linn) sting extract on experimental animals

A sting of the fish S. argus, a venomous edible spotted butterfish, produces tremendous local pain, severe swelling, rise of body temperature, throbbing sensation etc. To establish the pharmacological activities of S. argus sting extract, the present investigation, was carried out on experimental animals. The LD50 of extract was found to be 9.3 mg/kg (iv) in male albino mice. The extract showed loss of sensation, urination and salivation in mice. It potentiated pentobarbitone induced sleeping time in male albino mice and produced hypothermia. Extract produced a fall of cat and guinea pig blood pressure, which was completely abolished by mepyramine. It produced a transient reduction of respiratory rate in rat, but decreased respiratory amplitude in cat, which was abolished after vagotomy. On isolated toad heart, the extract increased both the amplitude and rate of contraction. On isolated guinea pig heart, the sting extract decreased both the rate and amplitude of contraction leading to cardiac arrest, but it had no effect on isolated guinea pig auricle. The extract produced a reversible blockade of electrically induced twitch response of isolated chick biventer cervices preparation, but it had no effect on the isolated rat phrenic nerve diaphragm preparation. It produced a slow contractile response on isolated guinea pig ileum, rat uterus and rat fundal strip preparations but produced slow relaxation on isolated rat duodenum preparation. The contractile response on isolated guinea pig ileum and rat fundal strip was antagonised by SC19220. It did not produce any significant cutaneous haemorrhage in mice and did not produce any haemolysis on saline washed erythrocytes. The sting extract significantly increased capillary permeability of guinea pig dorsal flank and produced oedema in mice hind paw.

Isolation and partial structural evaluation of a cardiotoxic factor from Indian common murrel (Channa striatus L.) skin extract

It was earlier reported from this laboratory that, Channa striatus, L a common edible fish, whose skin extract (CSSE) was pharmacologicaclly potent and contains several bioactive compounds. In the present communication a cardiotoxic factor was isolated and purified by thin layer chromatography followed by silica gel and neutral alumina column chromatography. Spectroscopic studies (UV, IR, 1H and 13C NMR, FAB-MS) indicated that the lethal cardiotoxic factor (CSS-CTF II) was an aromatic alkaloid compound with -NH, > C = C < and -OH functional groups. The molecular weight was found to be 413 dalton. LD50 of CSS-CTF II was found to be 42.5 mg/kg (i.v) in Swiss albino male mice. Pharmacological studies showed that CSS-CTF II possesses hypotensive and cardiotoxic activities and produced death through apnoea in experimental animals but had no effect on nerve muscle preparations. The haematological and biochemical data also indicated the toxic nature of CSS-CTF II, through significant fall in haemoglobin, total RBC, WBC, platelet count and increased cardiac marker enzyme CPK and CPK-MB value in experimental animals. The present investigation thus established the toxic nature of CSS-CTF II isolated from edible fish C. striatus skin extract. Further work is needed to identify CSS-CTF II's mechanism of action and its antagonism for therapeutic purpose.

A lethal neurotoxic protein from Indian king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venom

A lethal neurotoxin protein (Toxin CM36) was isolated and purified from the Indian King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venom by CM-Sephadex ion exchange chromatography and HPLC. The purified toxin had a SDS-molecular weight of 15 +/- 0.5 kD. The UV absorption spectra of Toxin CM36 showed a peak at 280 nm and an Emax at 343.8 nm, when excited at 280 nm fluorescence. Toxin CM36 had an LD50 of 3.5 microg/20 g (i.v.) in male albino mice. It exhibited neurotoxicity and produced irreversible blockade of isolated chick biventer cervicis and rat phrenic nerve diaphragm. The neurotoxicity was found to be Ca2+ dependent. Toxin CM36 had no significant effect on isolated guineapig heart and auricle. It also had no effect on blood pressure of cat and rat but produced respiratory apnoea in rat and guineapig. Toxin CM36 lacked phospholipase activity.

Snake venom as therapeutic agents: from toxin to drug development

Snake bite injuries and death are socio-medical problems of considerable magnitude. In India a large number of people suffer and die every year due to snake venom poisoning. Snake venom, though greatly feared, is a natural biological resource, containing several components that could be of potential therapeutic value. Use of snake venom in different pathophysiological conditions has been mentioned in Ayurveda, homeopathy and folk medicine. It is well known that snake venom is complex mixture of enzymes, peptides and proteins of low molecular mass with specific chemical and biological activities. Snake venom contains several neurotoxic, cardiotoxic, cytotoxic, nerve growth factor, lectins, disintrigrins, haemorrhagins and many other different enzymes. These proteins not only inflict death to animals and humans, but can also be used for the treatment of thrombosis, arthritis, cancer and many other diseases. An overview of various snake venom components that have prospects in health and diseases are discussed in this review.

Pharmacological and haematological study of shol fish (Channa striatus) skin extract on experimental animal

Snake head fish Channa striatus (locally called 'shol') skin extract (SFSE) was examined for certain pharmacological and haematological effects on experimental animals. LD50 of SFSE was found to be 6 mg/20gm (iv) in male albino mice. SFSE potentiated pentobarbitone induced sleeping time in male albino mice and produced hypothermia. Low dose of SFSE decreased respiratory rate in rat and guineapig and high dose produced apnoea leading to death. On isolated toad and guineapig heart, SFSE significantly decreased rate and amplitude of contraction leading to temporary blockade, which returned after repeated wash. On isolated nerve muscle preparations, SFSE produced irreversible blockade of twitch response. SFSE induced quick contraction on isolated guineapig ileum, which was antagonised by atropine and cyproheptadine. SFSE did not possess haemolytic and haemorrhagic activity but produced anaemia in male albino mice. A neurotoxic compound (fluoroscent and ninhydrin positive) was isolated from SFSE by thin layer chromatography. This compound (CS-NT) was lethal in male albino mice, produced death by apnoea in rat and produced irreversible blockade of isolated nerve-muscle preparation. This study confirms that the skin of Channa striatus possesses toxic, and lethal components, which needs further detailed study.

Isolation, purification and partial chemical characterization of a lethal factor from common indian toad (Bufo melanostictus, Schneider) skin extract

Indian toad (Bufo melanostictus, Schneider) skin extract (TSE) is pharmacologically potent and probably contains several bioactive compounds [Das et. al., Indian J Pharmacol, 28 (1996) 72]. A lethal factor was isolated and purified by neutral alumina column chromatography followed by HPLC. Spectroscopic (UV, IR, FAB-MASS) study indicated that the lethal factor (TSE-LF) was a 254 Da long chain compound with carbonyl, hydroxyl and ester as functional groups. LD50 of TSE-LF was found to be 3.5 mg/kg (iv). Biological study showed that TSE-LF possesses hypotensive, cardiotoxic, neurotoxic activity and produced death by apnoea in experimental animal. Cyproheptadine antagonised TSE-LF induced contraction of isolated smooth muscle indicating involvement of histamine/serotonin receptors. TSE-LF induced neurotoxic action on chick biventer cervices was mediated through Ca2+ ion.

Haematinic effect of Hygrophila spinosa T. Anderson on experimental rodents

Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of H. spinosa a semiwoody herb was examined on male albino rats for certain haematological changes. The extract (100 & 200 mg/kg, po) significantly increased the haemoglobin, haematocrit, RBC and total WBC, as compared with vehicle treated control rat haemogram. In anemic male albino rats, the extract significantly increased haemoglobin, haematocrit and RBC count. Serum iron and serum total iron binding capacity were significantly decreased in H. spinosa extract treated anemic rats as compared with those in the vehicle treated anemic control rats. These findings demonstrated the haematinic effect of H. spinosa extract on experimental animals.

Occurrence of a unique protein toxin from the Indian King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venom

A unique (lethal-cardiotoxic-hemorrhagic) protein toxin (Toxin CM55) was isolated and purified from Indian King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venom by CM-sephadex ion exchange chromatography and reverse phase HPLC. The purified toxin had an SDS-molecular weight of 22 +/- 0.5 kD. UV absorption spectra of Toxin CM55 showed a peak at 280 nm, whereas when excited at 280 nm fluorescence, Toxin CM55 showed an E(max) at 333.4 nm. Toxin CM55 had an LD(50) of 28.28 microg/20 g (i. v.) in albino mice. The cardiotoxic action of the toxin was established on isolated guinea pig/rabbit heart and guinea pig auricle. In rats, Toxin CM55 caused ECG abnormalities including widened QRS complex and monomorphic ventricular tachycardia suggesting that the possible site of action of Toxin CM55 was the ventricle. Toxin CM55 produced significant vasoconstriction on peripheral blood vessels. It produced significant contraction of isolated guinea pig ileum, rat fundus and rat uterus, which was completely antagonised by methysergide. The toxin was found to release a significant amount of serotonin from rabbit platelets. Toxin CM55 produced cutaneous hemorrhage in albino mice, which was also produced in reserpine and p-chloro phenylalanine pretreated animals. Rabbit antiserum was raised against Toxin CM55, which gave prominent bands in immunogel diffusion and immunoelectrophoresis. The antiserum provided 2 LD(50) protection against Toxin CM55-induced lethality in mice and also neutralised 3 MHD hemorrhagic dose of the toxin.

A sleep inducing factor from common Indian toad (Bufo melanostictus, Schneider) skin extract

Bufo melanostictus (common Indian toad) acquire different bioactive substances in their skin during their life-time in wide ecological habitat. Earlier investigation from this laboratory revealed that toad (B. melanostictus) skin extract (TSE) posses different bioactive compounds of different diversity (Das, M., Auddy, B. and Gomes, A., 1996. Pharmacological study of the toad skin extract on experimental animals. Indian J. Pharmacol. 28, 72-76). Among these sleep induction and sleep potentiation indicated the possibility of sleep inducing factor(s) in TSE. One such sleep inducing factor (SIF) was isolated and purified by neutral alumina column chromatography followed by HPLC. Spectroscopy (UV, IR, FAB-MASS) study indicated that the sleep inducing factor was a 880 Dalton conjugated aromatic compound with a hydroxyl and carbonyl functional group. Biological study showed that SIF produced no lethality in male albino mice upto the dose of 8 mg/kg, i.v. Cyproheptadine antagonised SIF induced contraction of isolated smooth muscle indicating histamine/serotonin receptor mediated action of SIF. EEG studies showed that SIF increased sleep and decreased awakening condition of freely moving rats. Biochemical studies showed that SIF produced significant alteration of brain biogenic amine levels, monoamine oxidase (MAO) and tryptophan hydroxylase (TH) activity. This may be the reason of SIF induced sleep, although the SIF induced sleep mechanism needs further detail investigation.

Bidder's organ extract induced anaphylaxis in experimental animals

Bidder's organ (BO, a vestigeal organ), present in toad Bufo melanostictus (Schenider), is a characteristic feature of all male bufo. Its possible anaphylactic properties are investigated on experimental animals. BO extract produced both in vivo and in vitro anaphylactic reaction in guineapig. Dyspnoea and bronchoconstriction was a major cause of anaphylactic death. Blood histamine level was significantly increased in the anaphylactic animals. BO extract significantly released histamine from chopped lung preparation, an action antagonised by disodium chromoglycate. BO extract degranulated peritoneal mast cell in vitro. Passive cutaneous anaphylactic reactions were enhanced by BO extract and were significantly inhibited by disodium chromoglycate. Anaphylotoxin (identity not known) present in bidder's organ is probably involved in toad defence.

A lethal cardiotoxic protein isolated from Bidder's organ of common Indian toad, Bufo melanostictus Schneider

A lethal cardiotoxic (BO-CT; Bidder's organ cardiotoxin) protein was purified from the Bidder's organ of the common Indian toad B. melanostictus by gel filtration on Sephadex G-200. The homogeneity of cardiotoxin was tested by gel electrophoresis. The molecular weight of lethal BO-CT was 62 KDa and was devoid of glycoprotein. LD50 of the BO-CT was 50 micrograms/20 g (i.v.) in male albino mice. On isolated heart and auricle BO-CT initially increased the rate and amplitude of contraction and finally produced irreversible blockade of contraction. BO-CT induced auricular blockade, was not influenced by verapamil, propranolol and atropine. On isolated chick biventer cervicis preparation BO-CT produced irreversible blockade of electrically induced twitch response followed by contracture. This action was not antagonized by 4-aminopyridine and neostigmine. BO-CT induced contracture on chick biventer cervicis was increased by Ca2+, decreased by Na+ and abolished by K+. Cardiotoxic and neuromuscular activity of BO-CT was heat stable and abolished by proteolytic enzyme.

Isolation, purification and partial characterization of a haemolytic protein from Bidder's organ of toad Bufo melanostictus (Schneider)

A haemolytic protein toxin (BO-HT) from Bidder's organ of toad, B. melanostictus, purified by DEAE-cellulose column chromatography was electrophoretically homogeneous and was glycoprotein in nature (PAS-positive). The molecular weight was estimated to be 14.4 kDa by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The sensitivity of the haemolysin of different RBC ghost cell preparation was in the order: buffalo > goat > ox > guinea pig > mice > human > chick > rabbit > rat. The haemolytic activity was increased with the decrease in RBC concentration and was produced over a wide range of temperature. Maximum haemolytic effect was produced at 2 hr of incubation. The toxin showed maximum activity at 3 and minimum at 10 pH. Divalent cations (Ca2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Mg2+) showed inhibitory effect on BO-HT induced haemolysis, whereas sucrose, EDTA, cholesterol, 2-mercaptoethanol and oxygen did not alter the haemolytic activity. Haemolytic activity was reduced by proteolytic enzymes (trypsin, protease) and was totally antagonized by the toad serum.

Detection and distribution of scorpion (Heterometrus bengalensis) venom in rabbit tissues by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

ELISA was carried out to detect distribution of scorpion venom in experimental animal tissues. The venom content of different tissues was in the order, liver greater than kidney greater than spleen greater than lung greater than heart greater than diaphragm greater than brain. Tissue distribution of venom antigen in the envenomental subject by ELISA will provide a better approach for serotherapy.

Histamine, 5-HT & hyaluronidase in the venom of the scorpion Lychas laevifrons (Pock)

Factors involved in the pathophysiological changes such as severe pain, burning sensation, redness, swelling and edema in case of the scorpion L. laevifrons were investigated. The presence of pain-producing autacoids histamine 2.1 +/- 0.18 micrograms/mg and 5-HT 0.23 +/- 0.1 micrograms/ml was confirmed by thin layer chromatography and bioassay. Histamine releasing substance was detected in vitro in the chopped guineapig lung. Venom also contained hyaluronidase 5 x 10(-4) N-acetyl-D-glucosamine released/h/mg, which facilitates spread of the toxic principles in the tissues. It is concluded that histamine, 5-HT, histamine-releasing factor and hyaluronidase are partly involved in the pathophysiological changes induced by the venom. It is suggested that mepyramine and cyproheptadine may prove useful in the management of scorpion envenomation.

Isolation, purification and immunological evaluation of toxin Hb from scorpion Heterometrus bengalensis (C.L. Koch) venom

Toxin-Hb, a lethal toxic antigenic protein, isolated from the venom of H. bengalensis by CM-cellulose ion-exchange chromatography was a heat labile basic protein with a molecular weight of 10 kDa. It produced irreversible blockade on the isolated rat phrenic nerve diaphragm and chick biventer cervicis. LD50 of toxin Hb was 0.48 mg/kg (iv) in mice. Antiserum was raised in mice by hyperimmunization against toxin Hb. Antitoxin Hb antiserum was immunologically potent as revealed by immunogel-diffusion and immunoelectrophoresis. Five fold protection against the lethal action of toxin Hb was achieved by the antiserum. It also effectively antagonised toxin Hb induced neuromuscular blockade on isolated rat phrenic nerve diaphragm and chick biventer cervicis preparations.

Pharmacology of scorpion (Lychas laevifrons Pock) venom with special reference to its neuromuscular activity

L. laevifrons venom caused irreversible blockade of electrically induced twitch responses on phrenic nerve diaphragm and chick biventer cervicis preparation. The venom lowered cat blood pressure, caused a brief cardiac arrest and increased cutaneous capillary permeability. It contracted several smooth muscle preparations. The quick contraction produced on guinea pig ileum was partly antagonized by mepyramine and completely by methysergide. The residual slow contraction was antagonized by SC 19220, a prostaglandin blocker. Haemolysis was not produced by the venom on human RBC. LD50 of crude venom in mice was 13.8 mg/kg (iv).