1
|
Zhong J, Medvecky M, Tornos J, Clessin A, Le Net R, Gantelet H, Gamble A, Forde TL, Boulinier T. Erysipelothrix amsterdamensis sp. nov., associated with mortalities among endangered seabirds. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2024; 74. [PMID: 38359084 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.006264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases threaten endangered species, particularly in small isolated populations. Seabird populations on the remote Amsterdam Island in the Indian Ocean have been in decline for the past three decades, with avian cholera caused by Pasteurella multocida proposed as the primary driver. However, Erysipelothrix species have also been sporadically detected from albatrosses on Amsterdam Island and may be contributing to some of the observed mortality. In this study, we genomically characterized 16 Erysipelothrix species isolates obtained from three Indian yellow-nosed albatross (Thalassarche carteri) chick carcasses in 2019. Histological analyses suggest that they died of bacterial septicaemia. Two isolates were sequenced using both Illumina short-read and MinION long-read approaches, which - following hybrid assembly - resulted in closed circular genomes. Mapping of Illumina reads from the remaining isolates to one of these new reference genomes revealed that all 16 isolates were closely related, with a maximum of 13 nucleotide differences distinguishing any pair of isolates. The nucleotide diversity of isolates obtained from the same or different carcasses was similar, suggesting all three chicks were likely infected from a common source. These genomes were compared with a global collection of genomes from Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae and other species from the same genus. The isolates from albatrosses were phylogenetically distinct, sharing a most recent common ancestor with E. rhusiopathiae. Based on phylogenomic analysis and standard thresholds for average nucleotide identity and digital DNA-DNA hybridization, these isolates represent a novel Erysipelothrix species, for which we propose the name Erysipelothrix amsterdamensis sp. nov. The type strain is A18Y020dT (=CIP 112216T=DSM 115297T). The implications of this bacterium for albatross conservation will require further study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiadong Zhong
- School of Biodiversity, One Health & Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
- School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Matej Medvecky
- School of Biodiversity, One Health & Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
- Bioinformatics Research Technology Platform, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Jérémy Tornos
- CEFE, UMR 5175, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
- Ceva Biovac, Beaucouzé, France
| | - Augustin Clessin
- CEFE, UMR 5175, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69342 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Rozenn Le Net
- Vet Diagnostics, 69260 Charbonnières-les-Bains, France
| | | | - Amandine Gamble
- School of Biodiversity, One Health & Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
- Department of Public and Ecosystem Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Taya L Forde
- School of Biodiversity, One Health & Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Thierry Boulinier
- CEFE, UMR 5175, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Neffe L, Forde TL, Oravcova K, Köhler U, Bautsch W, Tomasch J, Häussler S. Genomic epidemiology of clinical ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in a German hospital suggests infections are primarily community- and regionally-acquired. Microb Genom 2022; 8:mgen000901. [PMID: 36748515 PMCID: PMC9837565 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical Enterobacteriaceae isolates that produce extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) have been increasingly reported at a global scale. However, comprehensive data on the molecular epidemiology of ESBL-producing strains are limited and few studies have been conducted in non-outbreak situations.We used whole-genome sequencing to describe the population structure of 294 ESBL-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates that were recovered from a German community hospital throughout a 1 year sampling period in a non-outbreak situation.We found a high proportion of E. coli isolates (61.5 %) belonged to the globally disseminated extraintestinal pathogenic ST131, whereas a wider diversity of STs was observed among K. pneumoniae isolates. The E. coli ST131 population in this study was shaped by multiple introductions of strains as demonstrated by contextual genomic analysis including ST131 strains from other geographical sources. While no recent common ancestor of the isolates of the current study and other international isolates was found, our clinical isolates clustered with those previously recovered in the region. Furthermore, we found that the isolation of ESBL-producing clinical strains in hospitalized patients could only rarely be associated with likely patient-to-patient transmission, indicating primarily a community and regional acquisition of strains.Further genomic analyses of clinical, carriage and environmental isolates is needed to uncover hidden transmissions and thus discover the most common sources of ESBL-producing pathogen infections in our hospitals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Neffe
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology, Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany,Institute for Molecular Bacteriology, TWINCORE GmbH, Center of Clinical and Experimental Infection Research, a joint venture of the Hannover Medical School and the Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Hannover, Germany
| | - Taya L. Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Katarina Oravcova
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Ute Köhler
- Städtisches Klinikum Braunschweig gGmbH, Germany
| | | | - Jürgen Tomasch
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology, Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Susanne Häussler
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology, Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany,Institute for Molecular Bacteriology, TWINCORE GmbH, Center of Clinical and Experimental Infection Research, a joint venture of the Hannover Medical School and the Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Hannover, Germany,Department of Clinical Microbiology, Copenhagen University Hospital – Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark,Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany,*Correspondence: Susanne Häussler,
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Dennis TPW, Mable BK, Brunelle B, Devault A, Carter RW, Ling CL, Mmbaga BT, Halliday JEB, Oravcova K, Forde TL. Target-enrichment sequencing yields valuable genomic data for challenging-to-culture bacteria of public health importance. Microb Genom 2022; 8. [PMID: 35622897 PMCID: PMC9465068 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Genomic data contribute invaluable information to the epidemiological investigation of pathogens of public health importance. However, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of bacteria typically relies on culture, which represents a major hurdle for generating such data for a wide range of species for which culture is challenging. In this study, we assessed the use of culture-free target-enrichment sequencing as a method for generating genomic data for two bacterial species: (1) Bacillus anthracis, which causes anthrax in both people and animals and whose culture requires high-level containment facilities; and (2) Mycoplasma amphoriforme, a fastidious emerging human respiratory pathogen. We obtained high-quality genomic data for both species directly from clinical samples, with sufficient coverage (>15×) for confident variant calling over at least 80% of the baited genomes for over two thirds of the samples tested. Higher qPCR cycle threshold (Ct) values (indicative of lower pathogen concentrations in the samples), pooling libraries prior to capture, and lower captured library concentration were all statistically associated with lower capture efficiency. The Ct value had the highest predictive value, explaining 52 % of the variation in capture efficiency. Samples with Ct values ≤30 were over six times more likely to achieve the threshold coverage than those with a Ct > 30. We conclude that target-enrichment sequencing provides a valuable alternative to standard WGS following bacterial culture and creates opportunities for an improved understanding of the epidemiology and evolution of many clinically important pathogens for which culture is challenging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tristan P. W. Dennis
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Barbara K. Mable
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | | | | | - Ryan W. Carter
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Clare L. Ling
- Shoklo Malaria Research Unit, Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Mae Sot, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Blandina T. Mmbaga
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Jo E. B. Halliday
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Katarina Oravcova
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Taya L. Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- *Correspondence: Taya L. Forde,
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Forde TL, Dennis TPW, Aminu OR, Harvey WT, Hassim A, Kiwelu I, Medvecky M, Mshanga D, Van Heerden H, Vogel A, Zadoks RN, Mmbaga BT, Lembo T, Biek R. Population genomics of Bacillus anthracis from an anthrax hyperendemic area reveals transmission processes across spatial scales and unexpected within-host diversity. Microb Genom 2022; 8:000759. [PMID: 35188453 PMCID: PMC8942019 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Genomic sequencing has revolutionized our understanding of bacterial disease epidemiology, but remains underutilized for zoonotic pathogens in remote endemic settings. Anthrax, caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis, remains a threat to human and animal health and rural livelihoods in low- and middle-income countries. While the global genomic diversity of B. anthracis has been well-characterized, there is limited information on how its populations are genetically structured at the scale at which transmission occurs, critical for understanding the pathogen's evolution and transmission dynamics. Using a uniquely rich dataset, we quantified genome-wide SNPs among 73 B. anthracis isolates derived from 33 livestock carcasses sampled over 1 year throughout the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania, a region hyperendemic for anthrax. Genome-wide SNPs distinguished 22 unique B. anthracis genotypes (i.e. SNP profiles) within the study area. However, phylogeographical structure was lacking, as identical SNP profiles were found throughout the study area, likely the result of the long and variable periods of spore dormancy and long-distance livestock movements. Significantly, divergent genotypes were obtained from spatio-temporally linked cases and even individual carcasses. The high number of SNPs distinguishing isolates from the same host is unlikely to have arisen during infection, as supported by our simulation models. This points to an unexpectedly wide transmission bottleneck for B. anthracis, with an inoculum comprising multiple variants being the norm. Our work highlights that inferring transmission patterns of B. anthracis from genomic data will require analytical approaches that account for extended and variable environmental persistence, as well as co-infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taya L. Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Tristan P. W. Dennis
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - O. Rhoda Aminu
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - William T. Harvey
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Ayesha Hassim
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
| | - Ireen Kiwelu
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Matej Medvecky
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Henriette Van Heerden
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
| | - Adeline Vogel
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Ruth N. Zadoks
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Present address: Sydney School of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Blandina T. Mmbaga
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Tiziana Lembo
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Roman Biek
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Crestani C, Forde TL, Lycett SJ, Holmes MA, Fasth C, Persson-Waller K, Zadoks RN. The fall and rise of group B Streptococcus in dairy cattle: reintroduction due to human-to-cattle host jumps? Microb Genom 2021; 7. [PMID: 34486971 PMCID: PMC8715428 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Group B Streptococcus (GBS; Streptococcus agalactiae) is a major neonatal and opportunistic bacterial pathogen of humans and an important cause of mastitis in dairy cattle with significant impacts on food security. Following the introduction of mastitis control programmes in the 1950s, GBS was nearly eradicated from the dairy industry in northern Europe, followed by re-emergence in the 21st century. Here, we sought to explain this re-emergence based on short and long read sequencing of historical (1953–1978; n=44) and contemporary (1997–2012; n=76) bovine GBS isolates. Our data show that a globally distributed bovine-associated lineage of GBS was commonly detected among historical isolates but never among contemporary isolates. By contrast, tetracycline resistance, which is present in all major GBS clones adapted to humans, was commonly and uniquely detected in contemporary bovine isolates. These observations provide evidence for strain replacement and suggest a human origin of newly emerged strains. Three novel GBS plasmids were identified, including two showing >98 % sequence similarity with plasmids from Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis, which co-exist with GBS in the human oropharynx. Our findings support introduction of GBS into the dairy population due to human-to-cattle jumps on multiple occasions and demonstrate that reverse zoonotic transmission can erase successes of animal disease control campaigns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Crestani
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Garscube Campus, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Taya L Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Garscube Campus, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Samantha J Lycett
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Mark A Holmes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Rd, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Charlotta Fasth
- National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Ruth N Zadoks
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Garscube Campus, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.,Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik EH26 0PZ, UK.,School of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Werombi Road, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Seligsohn D, Crestani C, Forde TL, Chenais E, Zadoks RN. Genomic analysis of group B Streptococcus from milk demonstrates the need for improved biosecurity: a cross-sectional study of pastoralist camels in Kenya. BMC Microbiol 2021; 21:217. [PMID: 34281509 PMCID: PMC8287776 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-021-02228-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus, (GBS)) is the leading cause of mastitis (inflammation of the mammary gland) among dairy camels in Sub-Saharan Africa, with negative implications for milk production and quality and animal welfare. Camel milk is often consumed raw and presence of GBS in milk may pose a public health threat. Little is known about the population structure or virulence factors of camel GBS. We investigated the molecular epidemiology of camel GBS and its implications for mastitis control and public health. RESULTS Using whole genome sequencing, we analysed 65 camel milk GBS isolates from 19 herds in Isiolo, Kenya. Six sequence types (STs) were identified, mostly belonging to previously described camel-specific STs. One isolate belonged to ST1, a predominantly human-associated lineage, possibly as a result of interspecies transmission. Most (54/65) isolates belonged to ST616, indicative of contagious transmission. Phylogenetic analysis of GBS core genomes showed similar levels of heterogeneity within- and between herds, suggesting ongoing between-herd transmission. The lactose operon, a marker of GBS adaptation to the mammary niche, was found in 75 % of the isolates, and tetracycline resistance gene tet(M) in all but two isolates. Only the ST1 isolate harboured virulence genes scpB and lmb, which are associated with human host adaptation. CONCLUSIONS GBS in milk from Kenyan camel herds largely belongs to ST616 and shows signatures of adaptation to the udder. The finding of similar levels of within- and between herd heterogeneity of GBS in camel herds, as well as potential human-camel transmission highlights the need for improved internal as well as external biosecurity to curb disease transmission and increase milk production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dinah Seligsohn
- Department of Animal Health and Antimicrobial Strategies, National Veterinary Institute, SE- 75189, Uppsala, Sweden.
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Chiara Crestani
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Taya L Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Erika Chenais
- Department of Disease Control and Epidemiology, National Veterinary Institute, SE-75189, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ruth N Zadoks
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Aminu OR, Lembo T, Zadoks RN, Biek R, Lewis S, Kiwelu I, Mmbaga BT, Mshanga D, Shirima G, Denwood M, Forde TL. Practical and effective diagnosis of animal anthrax in endemic low-resource settings. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008655. [PMID: 32925904 PMCID: PMC7513992 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax threatens human and animal health, and people's livelihoods in many rural communities in Africa and Asia. In these areas, anthrax surveillance is challenged by a lack of tools for on-site detection. Furthermore, cultural practices and infrastructure may affect sample availability and quality. Practical yet accurate diagnostic solutions are greatly needed to quantify anthrax impacts. We validated microscopic and molecular methods for the detection of Bacillus anthracis in field-collected blood smears and identified alternative samples suitable for anthrax confirmation in the absence of blood smears. We investigated livestock mortalities suspected to be caused by anthrax in northern Tanzania. Field-prepared blood smears (n = 152) were tested by microscopy using four staining techniques as well as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by Bayesian latent class analysis. Median sensitivity (91%, CI 95% [84-96%]) and specificity (99%, CI 95% [96-100%]) of microscopy using azure B were comparable to those of the recommended standard, polychrome methylene blue, PMB (92%, CI 95% [84-97%] and 98%, CI 95% [95-100%], respectively), but azure B is more available and convenient. Other commonly-used stains performed poorly. Blood smears could be obtained for <50% of suspected anthrax cases due to local customs and conditions. However, PCR on DNA extracts from skin, which was almost always available, had high sensitivity and specificity (95%, CI 95% [90-98%] and 95%, CI 95% [87-99%], respectively), even after extended storage at ambient temperature. Azure B microscopy represents an accurate diagnostic test for animal anthrax that can be performed with basic laboratory infrastructure and in the field. When blood smears are unavailable, PCR using skin tissues provides a valuable alternative for confirmation. Our findings lead to a practical diagnostic approach for anthrax in low-resource settings that can support surveillance and control efforts for anthrax-endemic countries globally.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olubunmi R. Aminu
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Tiziana Lembo
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ruth N. Zadoks
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Roman Biek
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Suzanna Lewis
- Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Ireen Kiwelu
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Blandina T. Mmbaga
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | | | - Gabriel Shirima
- Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Matt Denwood
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Taya L. Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Crestani C, Forde TL, Zadoks RN. Development and Application of a Prophage Integrase Typing Scheme for Group B Streptococcus. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1993. [PMID: 32983017 PMCID: PMC7487436 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is a gram-positive pathogen mainly affecting humans, cattle, and fishes. Mobile genetic elements play an important role in the evolution of GBS, its adaptation to host species and niches, and its pathogenicity. In particular, lysogenic prophages have been associated with a high virulence of certain strains and with their ability to cause invasive infections in humans. It is therefore important to be able to accurately detect and classify prophages in GBS genomes. Several bioinformatic tools for the identification of prophages in bacterial genomes are available on-line. However, genome searches for most of these programs are affected by the composition of their reference database. Lack of databases specific to GBS results in failure to recognize all prophages in the species. Additionally, performance of these programs is affected by genome fragmentation in the case of draft genomes, leading to underestimation of the number of phages. They also prove impractical when dealing with large genome datasets and they do not offer a quick way of classifying bacteriophages. We developed a GBS-specific method to screen genome assemblies for the presence of prophages and to classify them based on a reproducible typing scheme. This was achieved through an extensive search of a vast number of high-quality GBS sequences (n = 572) originating from different host species and countries in order to build a database of phage integrase types, on which the scheme is based. The proposed typing scheme comprises 12 integration sites and sixteen prophage integrase types, including multiple subtypes per integration site and integrase genes that were not site-specific. Two putative phage-inducible chromosomal islands (PICI) and their insertion sites were also identified during the course of these analyses. Phages were common and diverse in all major clonal complexes associated with human disease and detected in isolates from every animal species and continent included in the study. This database will facilitate further work on the prevalence and role of prophages in GBS evolution, and identifies the roles of PICIs in GBS and of prophage in hypervirulent ST283 as areas for further research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Crestani
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Taya L Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ruth N Zadoks
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.,Sydney School of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Forde TL, Kollanandi Ratheesh N, Harvey WT, Thomson JR, Williamson S, Biek R, Opriessnig T. Genomic and Immunogenic Protein Diversity of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Isolated From Pigs in Great Britain: Implications for Vaccine Protection. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:418. [PMID: 32231655 PMCID: PMC7083082 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Erysipelas, caused by the bacterium Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, is re-emerging in swine and poultry production systems worldwide. While the global genomic diversity of this species has been characterized, how much of this genomic and functional diversity is maintained at smaller scales is unclear. Specifically, while several key immunogenic surface proteins have been identified for E. rhusiopathiae, little is known about their presence among field strains and their divergence from vaccines, which could result in vaccine failure. Here, a comparative genomics approach was taken to determine the diversity of E. rhusiopathiae strains in pigs in Great Britain over nearly three decades, as well as to assess the field strains’ divergence from the vaccine strain most commonly used in British pigs. In addition, the presence/absence and variability of 13 previously described immunogenic surface proteins was determined, including SpaA which is considered a key immunogen. We found a high diversity of E. rhusiopathiae strains in British pigs, similar to the situation described in European poultry but in contrast to swine production systems in Asia. Of the four clades of E. rhusiopathiae found globally, three were represented among British pig isolates, with Clade 2 being the most common. All British pig isolates had one amino acid difference in the immunoprotective domain of the SpaA protein compared to the vaccine strain. However, we were able to confirm using in silico structural protein analyses that this difference is unlikely to compromise vaccine protection. Of 12 other known immunogenic surface proteins of E. rhusiopathiae examined, 11 were found to be present in all British pig isolates and the vaccine strain, but with highly variable degrees of conservation at the amino acid sequence level, ranging from 0.3 to 27% variant positions. Moreover, the phylogenetic incongruence of these proteins suggests that horizontal transfer of genes encoding for antigens is commonplace for this bacterium. We hypothesize that the sequence variants in these proteins could be responsible for differences in the efficacy of the immune response. Our results provide the necessary basis for testing this hypothesis through in vitro and in vivo studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taya L Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Nichith Kollanandi Ratheesh
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - William T Harvey
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Jill R Thomson
- Disease Surveillance Centre, SAC Veterinary Services, Scotland's Rural College, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Susanna Williamson
- Surveillance Intelligence Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Bury St Edmunds, United Kingdom
| | - Roman Biek
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Tanja Opriessnig
- The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Barkema HW, Orsel K, Nielsen SS, Koets AP, Rutten VPMG, Bannantine JP, Keefe GP, Kelton DF, Wells SJ, Whittington RJ, Mackintosh CG, Manning EJ, Weber MF, Heuer C, Forde TL, Ritter C, Roche S, Corbett CS, Wolf R, Griebel PJ, Kastelic JP, De Buck J. Knowledge gaps that hamper prevention and control of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017; 65 Suppl 1:125-148. [PMID: 28941207 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In the last decades, many regional and country-wide control programmes for Johne's disease (JD) were developed due to associated economic losses, or because of a possible association with Crohn's disease. These control programmes were often not successful, partly because management protocols were not followed, including the introduction of infected replacement cattle, because tests to identify infected animals were unreliable, and uptake by farmers was not high enough because of a perceived low return on investment. In the absence of a cure or effective commercial vaccines, control of JD is currently primarily based on herd management strategies to avoid infection of cattle and restrict within-farm and farm-to-farm transmission. Although JD control programmes have been implemented in most developed countries, lessons learned from JD prevention and control programmes are underreported. Also, JD control programmes are typically evaluated in a limited number of herds and the duration of the study is less than 5 year, making it difficult to adequately assess the efficacy of control programmes. In this manuscript, we identify the most important gaps in knowledge hampering JD prevention and control programmes, including vaccination and diagnostics. Secondly, we discuss directions that research should take to address those knowledge gaps.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H W Barkema
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - K Orsel
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - S S Nielsen
- University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - A P Koets
- Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - V P M G Rutten
- Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | | | - G P Keefe
- University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Canada
| | | | - S J Wells
- University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | | | | | | | - M F Weber
- GD Animal Health, Deventer, The Netherlands
| | - C Heuer
- Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | | - C Ritter
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - S Roche
- University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - C S Corbett
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - R Wolf
- Amt der Steiermärkischen Landesregierung, Graz, Austria
| | | | - J P Kastelic
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - J De Buck
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Ladbury G, J Allan K, Cleaveland S, Davis A, A de Glanville W, L Forde T, E B Halliday J, T Haydon D, Kibiki G, Kiwelu I, Lembo T, Maro V, T Mmbaga B, Ndyetabura T, Sharp J, Thomas K, N Zadoks R. One Health Research in Northern Tanzania - Challenges and Progress. East Afr Health Res J 2017. [DOI: 10.24248/eahrj.v1i1.383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
12
|
Ladbury G, Allan KJ, Cleaveland S, Davis A, de Glanville WA, Forde TL, Halliday JEB, Haydon DT, Kibiki G, Kiwelu I, Lembo T, Maro V, Mmbaga BT, Ndyetabura T, Sharp J, Thomas K, Zadoks RN. One Health Research in Northern Tanzania - Challenges and Progress. East Afr Health Res J 2017; 1:8-18. [PMID: 34308154 PMCID: PMC8279194 DOI: 10.24248/eahrj-d-16-00379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
East Africa has one of the world's fastest growing human populations-many of whom are dependent on livestock-as well as some of the world's largest wildlife populations. Humans, livestock, and wildlife often interact closely, intimately linking human, animal, and environmental health. The concept of One Health captures this interconnectedness, including the social structures and beliefs driving interactions between species and their environments. East African policymakers and researchers are recognising and encouraging One Health research, with both groups increasingly playing a leading role in this subject area. One Health research requires interaction between scientists from different disciplines, such as the biological and social sciences and human and veterinary medicine. Different disciplines draw on norms, methodologies, and terminologies that have evolved within their respective institutions and that may be distinct from or in conflict with one another. These differences impact interdisciplinary research, both around theoretical and methodological approaches and during project operationalisation. We present experiential knowledge gained from numerous ongoing projects in northern Tanzania, including those dealing with bacterial zoonoses associated with febrile illness, foodborne disease, and anthrax. We use the examples to illustrate differences between and within social and biological sciences and between industrialised and traditional societies, for example, with regard to consenting procedures or the ethical treatment of animals. We describe challenges encountered in ethical approval processes, consenting procedures, and field and laboratory logistics and offer suggestions for improvement. While considerable investment of time in sensitisation, communication, and collaboration is needed to overcome interdisciplinary challenges inherent in One Health research, this can yield great rewards in paving the way for successful implementation of One Health projects. Furthermore, continued investment in African institutions and scientists will strengthen the role of East Africa as a world leader in One Health research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Ladbury
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Kathryn J Allan
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Sarah Cleaveland
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Alicia Davis
- School of Geographical and Earth Sciences, College of Science and Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - William A de Glanville
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Taya L Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Jo E B Halliday
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Daniel T Haydon
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Gibson Kibiki
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Good Samaritan Foundation, Moshi, Tanzania.,East African Health Research Commission, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Ireen Kiwelu
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Good Samaritan Foundation, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Tiziana Lembo
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Venance Maro
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Good Samaritan Foundation, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Blandina T Mmbaga
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Good Samaritan Foundation, Moshi, Tanzania.,Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Good Samaritan Foundation, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Theonest Ndyetabura
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Good Samaritan Foundation, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Jo Sharp
- School of Geographical and Earth Sciences, College of Science and Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Kate Thomas
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Good Samaritan Foundation, Moshi, Tanzania.,Centre for International Health, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Ruth N Zadoks
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Good Samaritan Foundation, Moshi, Tanzania
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Forde TL, Orsel K, Zadoks RN, Biek R, Adams LG, Checkley SL, Davison T, De Buck J, Dumond M, Elkin BT, Finnegan L, Macbeth BJ, Nelson C, Niptanatiak A, Sather S, Schwantje HM, van der Meer F, Kutz SJ. Bacterial Genomics Reveal the Complex Epidemiology of an Emerging Pathogen in Arctic and Boreal Ungulates. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1759. [PMID: 27872617 PMCID: PMC5097903 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Northern ecosystems are currently experiencing unprecedented ecological change, largely driven by a rapidly changing climate. Pathogen range expansion, and emergence and altered patterns of infectious disease, are increasingly reported in wildlife at high latitudes. Understanding the causes and consequences of shifting pathogen diversity and host-pathogen interactions in these ecosystems is important for wildlife conservation, and for indigenous populations that depend on wildlife. Among the key questions are whether disease events are associated with endemic or recently introduced pathogens, and whether emerging strains are spreading throughout the region. In this study, we used a phylogenomic approach to address these questions of pathogen endemicity and spread for Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, an opportunistic multi-host bacterial pathogen associated with recent mortalities in arctic and boreal ungulate populations in North America. We isolated E. rhusiopathiae from carcasses associated with large-scale die-offs of muskoxen in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and from contemporaneous mortality events and/or population declines among muskoxen in northwestern Alaska and caribou and moose in western Canada. Bacterial genomic diversity differed markedly among these locations; minimal divergence was present among isolates from muskoxen in the Canadian Arctic, while in caribou and moose populations, strains from highly divergent clades were isolated from the same location, or even from within a single carcass. These results indicate that mortalities among northern ungulates are not associated with a single emerging strain of E. rhusiopathiae, and that alternate hypotheses need to be explored. Our study illustrates the value and limitations of bacterial genomic data for discriminating between ecological hypotheses of disease emergence, and highlights the importance of studying emerging pathogens within the broader context of environmental and host factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taya L. Forde
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of CalgaryCalgary, AB, Canada
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of GlasgowGlasgow, UK
| | - Karin Orsel
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of CalgaryCalgary, AB, Canada
| | - Ruth N. Zadoks
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of GlasgowGlasgow, UK
| | - Roman Biek
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of GlasgowGlasgow, UK
| | - Layne G. Adams
- Alaska Science Center, U.S. Geological SurveyAnchorage, AK, USA
| | - Sylvia L. Checkley
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of CalgaryCalgary, AB, Canada
| | - Tracy Davison
- Environment and Natural Resources, Government of Northwest TerritoriesInuvik, NT, Canada
| | - Jeroen De Buck
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of CalgaryCalgary, AB, Canada
| | - Mathieu Dumond
- Department of Environment, Government of NunavutKugluktuk, NU, Canada
| | - Brett T. Elkin
- Environment and Natural Resources, Government of Northwest TerritoriesYellowknife, NT, Canada
| | | | - Bryan J. Macbeth
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of CalgaryCalgary, AB, Canada
| | - Cait Nelson
- Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, Government of British ColumbiaNanaimo, BC, Canada
| | | | - Shane Sather
- Department of Environment, Government of NunavutCambridge Bay, Nunavut, Canada
| | - Helen M. Schwantje
- Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, Government of British ColumbiaNanaimo, BC, Canada
| | - Frank van der Meer
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of CalgaryCalgary, AB, Canada
| | - Susan J. Kutz
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of CalgaryCalgary, AB, Canada
- Canadian Wildlife Health CooperativeCalgary, AB, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Pruvot M, Forde TL, Steele J, Kutz SJ, Buck JD, Meer FVD, Orsel K. The modification and evaluation of an ELISA test for the surveillance of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in wild ruminants. BMC Vet Res 2013; 9:5. [PMID: 23302439 PMCID: PMC3545983 DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-9-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is often used to test wildlife samples for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection. However, commercially available kits are only validated for use with domestic ruminant species. A literature review was performed to document the current use of MAP serum ELISA in wild and semi-domestic ruminants. We then modified and evaluated a commercial ELISA kit (IDEXX Mycobacterium paratuberculosis Antibody Test Kit) for use with species for which it was not originally developed: elk (Cervus elaphus), bison (Bison bison) and caribou (Rangifer tarandus). We tested the affinity of different conjugates for immunoglobulin G (IgG) isolated from these species, performed checkerboard tests to determine the optimal dilutions of samples and conjugates, and established cut-off values using two different methods: a Receiver Operational Curve on a panel of known samples for elk, and an alternate method involving a panel of unknown serum samples for the three species. RESULTS We found that the anti-bovine conjugate included in the IDEXX ELISA kit has limited affinity for elk, bison, and caribou IgG. Protein G showed good affinity for IgG of all three species, while anti-deer conjugate also bound elk and caribou IgG. Using Protein G with elk serum, a cut-off sample-to-positive (S/P) value of 0.22 was selected, resulting in a sensitivity and specificity of 73% and 90%, respectively, whereas, using an anti-deer conjugate with elk serum, an S/P cut-off value of 0.29 gave a sensitivity of 68%, with 100% specificity. Cut-off values for bison and caribou using the Protein G conjugate were 0.17 and 0.25 respectively. CONCLUSIONS Due to incomplete reporting and a lack of test validation, it is difficult to critically appraise results of many sero-surveys that have previously been done for MAP in wildlife. Commercial ELISA kits may have limited or no capacity to detect antibodies from species other than for which they were developed. In order to generate reliable test results, it is essential to evaluate the test and perform modifications if deemed necessary. Despite the challenges inherent to wildlife diagnostics, we have shown that several methods can be used to improve confidence in test results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Pruvot
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Taya L Forde
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Jillian Steele
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Susan J Kutz
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Jeroen De Buck
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Frank van der Meer
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Karin Orsel
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|