THE RETINOBLASTOMA PROTEIN: A MASTER TUMOR SUPPRESSOR ACTS AS A LINK BETWEEN CELL CYCLE AND CELL ADHESION

RB1 was the first tumor suppressor gene discovered. Over four decades of work have revealed that the Rb protein (pRb) is a master regulator of biological pathways influencing virtually every aspect of intrinsic cell fate including cell growth, cell-cycle checkpoints, differentiation, senescence, self-renewal, replication, genomic stability and apoptosis. While these many processes may account for a significant portion of RB1's potency as a tumor suppressor, a small, but growing stream of evidence suggests that RB1 also significantly influences how a cell interacts with its environment, including cell-to-cell and cell-to-extracellular matrix interactions. This review will highlight pRb's role in the control of cell adhesion and how alterations in the adhesive properties of tumor cells may drive the deadly process of metastasis.

Expression of integrin alpha 10 is transcriptionally activated by pRb in mouse osteoblasts and is downregulated in multiple solid tumors

pRb is known as a classic cell cycle regulator whose inactivation is an important initiator of tumorigenesis. However, more recently, it has also been linked to tumor progression. This study defines a role for pRb as a suppressor of the progression to metastasis by upregulating integrin α10. Transcription of this integrin subunit is herein found to be pRb dependent in mouse osteoblasts. Classic pRb partners in cell cycle control, E2F1 and E2F3, do not repress transcription of integrin α10 and phosphorylation of pRb is not necessary for activation of the integrin α10 promoter. Promoter deletion revealed a pRb-responsive region between −108 bp to −55 bp upstream of the start of the site of transcription. pRb activation of transcription also leads to increased levels of integrin α10 protein and a greater concentration of the integrin α10 protein at the cell membrane of mouse osteoblasts. These higher levels of integrin α10 correspond to increased binding to collagen substrate. Consistent with our findings in mouse osteoblasts, we found that integrin α10 is significantly underexpressed in multiple solid tumors that have frequent inactivation of the pRb pathway. Bioinformatically, we identified data consistent with an ‘integrin switch' that occurs in multiple solid tumors consisting of underexpression of integrins α7, α8, and α10 with concurrent overexpression of integrin β4. pRb promotes cell adhesion by inducing expression of integrins necessary for cell adhesion to a substrate. We propose that pRb loss in solid tumors exacerbates aggressiveness by debilitating cellular adhesion, which in turn facilitates tumor cell detachment and metastasis.

Transcriptional upregulation of p57 (Kip2) by the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor BMS-387032 is E2F dependent and serves as a negative feedback loop limiting cytotoxicity

In spite of the fact that cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk) inhibiting drugs are potent transcriptional repressors, we discover that p57 (Kip2, CDKN1C) transcription is significantly upregulated by three small molecule cdk inhibitors, including BMS-387032. Treatment of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells with BMS-387032 led to a stabilization of the E2F1 protein that was accompanied by significant increases in the p57 mRNA and protein. This increase did not occur in an E2F1-deficient cell line. An E2F1-estrogen receptor fusion protein activated the endogenous p57 promoter in response to hydroxytamoxifen treatment in the presence of cycloheximide. Luciferase constructs driven by the p57 promoter verified that upregulation of p57 mRNA by BMS-387032 is transcriptional and dependent on E2F-binding sites in the promoter. Expression of exogenous p57 significantly decreased the fraction of cells in S phase. Furthermore, p57-deficient MDA-MB-231 cell lines were significantly more sensitive to BMS-387032-induced apoptosis than controls. The results presented in this manuscript demonstrate that small molecule cdk inhibitors transcriptionally activate p57 dependent upon E2F1 and that this activation in turn serves to limit E2F1's death-inducing activity.

E2F1 induces MRN foci formation and a cell cycle checkpoint response in human fibroblasts

Deregulation of the Rb/E2F pathway in human fibroblasts results in an E2F1-mediated apoptosis dependent on Atm, Nbs1, Chk2 and p53. Here, we show that E2F1 expression results in MRN foci formation, which is independent of the Nbs1 interacting region and the DNA-binding domain of E2F1. E2F1-induced MRN foci are similar to irradiation-induced foci (IRIF) that result from double-strand DNA breaks because they correlate with 53BP1 and gammaH2AX foci, do not form in NBS cells, do form in AT cells and do not correlate with cell cycle entry. In fact, we find that in human fibroblasts deregulated E2F1 causes a G1 arrest, blocking serum-induced cell cycle progression, in part through an Nbs1/53BP1/p53/p21(WAF1/CIP1) checkpoint pathway. This checkpoint protects against apoptosis because depletion of 53BP1 or p21(WAF1/CIP1) increases both the rate and extent of apoptosis. Nbs1 and p53 contribute to both checkpoint and apoptosis pathways. These results suggest that E2F1-induced foci generate a cell cycle checkpoint that, with sustained E2F1 activity, eventually yields to apoptosis. Uncontrolled proliferation due to Rb/E2F deregulation as well as inactivation of both checkpoint and apoptosis programs would then be required for transformation of normal cells to tumor cells.

Calorie restriction influences cell cycle protein expression and DNA synthesis during liver regeneration

Calorie restriction without essential nutrient deficiency (calorie restriction, CR) abrogates experimental carcinogenesis and extends healthful life span. To test whether CR influences cell-cycle protein expression during the hepatocellular proliferation induced by 70% partial hepatectomy (PH), BALB/c mice were separated into two groups, fed comparable semi-purified diets for 10 weeks that differed 40% in caloric offering, and were then subjected to PH. When PH was performed, CR mice weighed 36% less than ad libitum (AL)-fed mice (P < 0.01), but liver-to-body weight ratios were similar. During the regenerative hyperplasia, hepatocytes of CR mice demonstrated evidence of accelerated entrance and passage through G1 and S phases, and an earlier exit from the cell cycle. The first peak of DNA synthesis occurred 6 hr earlier, and the second peak was significantly greater among CR mice with 38% +/- 13% bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-positive hepatocytes, compared with 14% +/- 4% in AL mice (P < 0.01). More E2F-1 expression was induced at the hepatic G1/S boundary just prior to each peak of DNA synthesis in regenerating livers of CR mice (P < 0.01), and 8 hr earlier among CR mice. More hyperphosphorylated retinoblastoma p110 was detected during hepatic G1 and the G1-S transition among CR mice, coincident with the early hepatocellular proliferative wave. Cyclin A was induced during the first peak of DNA synthesis 4 hr earlier among CR mice, and it continued 4 hr longer in AL mice, indicating an earlier post-replicative exit by hepatocytes in CR mice. p21 was induced during the G1 phase at 4 hr post-PH, and was maximally expressed during and after peak DNA synthesis in both dietary groups. These results indicate that CR influences cell cycle protein expression levels, causing hepatocytes to enter into S phase earlier and exit abruptly from the cell cycle, and they support the premise that CR enhances induced cell responsiveness by influencing cell cycle regulatory controls.

Inhibition of mitogenesis in Balb/c-3T3 cells by Trichostatin A. Multiple alterations in the induction and activation of cyclin-cyclin-dependent kinase complexes

Trichostatin A (TSA), a global repressor of histone deacetylase activity, inhibits the proliferation of a number of cell types. However, the identification of the mechanisms underlying TSA-mediated growth arrests has remained elusive. In order to resolve in more detail the cellular process modulated during the growth inhibition induced by TSA, we studied the effect of the drug on G(0)/G(1) traverse in mitogen-stimulated quiescent Balb/c-3T3 cells. Cyclin D1 and retinoblastoma proteins were induced following the mitogenic stimulation of both control and TSA-treated cells, and cyclin D1 formed complexes with CDK4 under both conditions. However, cyclin D1-associated kinase was not increased in growth-arrested cells. The lack of cyclin D-associated kinase was paralleled by an accumulation of RB in a hypophosphorylated form, as would be expected. In contrast, p130 became partially phosphorylated, accompanied by a marked increase in p130-dependent E2F DNA binding activity and a partial release of free E2F-4. Despite the presence of E2F complexes not bound to pocket proteins, late G(1) E2F-dependent gene expression was not observed. The lack of cyclin D1-associated kinase in TSA-treated cultures was potentially due to high levels of the cyclin-dependent inhibitor p27(kip1). However, the modulation of p27(kip1) levels by the deacetylase inhibitor cannot be responsible for the induction of the cell cycle arrest, since the growth of murine embryo fibroblasts deficient in both p27(kip1) and p21(cip1) was also inhibited by TSA. These data support a model in which TSA inhibits very early cell cycle traverse, which, in turn, leads to a decrease in cyclin D1-associated kinase activation and a repression of late cell cycle-dependent events. Alterations in early G(0)/G(1) gene expression accompany the TSA-mediated growth arrest.

Transforming growth factor beta inhibits the phosphorylation of pRB at multiple serine/threonine sites and differentially regulates the formation of pRB family-E2F complexes in human myeloid leukemia cells

Transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta)1 induced dephosphorylation of pRb at multiple serine and threonine residues including Ser249/Thr252, Thr373, Ser780, and Ser807/811 in MV4-11 cells. Likewise, TGFbeta1 caused the dephosphorylation of p130, while inhibiting accumulation of p107 protein. Phosphorylated pRb was detected to bind E2F-1 and E2F-3, which appears to be a major form of pRb complexes in actively cycling cells. TGFbeta1 significantly downregulated pRb-E2F-1 and pRb-E2F-3 complexes as a result of inhibition of E2F-1 and E2F-3. In contrast, complexes of E2F-4 with pRb and with p130 were increased markedly upon TGFbeta1 treatment, whereas p107 associated E2F-4 was dramatically decreased. In agreement with these results, p130-E2F-4 DNA binding activity was dominant in TGFbeta1 treated cells, whereas p107-E2F-4 DNA binding activity was only found in proliferating cells. Our data strongly suggest that inhibition of E2Fs and differential regulation of pRb family-E2F-4 complexes are linked to TGFbeta1-induced growth inhibition. E2F-4 is switched from p107 to p130 and pRb when cells are arrested in G1 phase by TGFbeta1.

Identification of E2F-3B, an alternative form of E2F-3 lacking a conserved N-terminal region

We have identified a novel form of the full-length E2F-3 protein that we term E2F-3B. In contrast to full-length E2F-3, which is expressed only at the G1/S boundary, E2F-3B is detected throughout the cell cycle with peak levels in GO where it is associated with Rb. Transfection and in vitro translation experiments demonstrate that a protein identical to E2F-3B in size and iso-electric point is produced from the E2F-3 mRNA via the use of an alternative translational start site. This alternative initiation codon was mapped by mutagenesis to codon 102, an ACG codon. Mutation of the ACG codon at position 102 abolished E2F-3B expression, whereas the conversion of ACG 102 to a consensus ATG led to the expression of a protein indistinguishable from E2F-3B. Given these results, E2F-3B is missing 101 N-terminal amino acids relative to full-length E2F-3. This region includes a moderately conserved sequence of unknown function that is present only in the growth-promoting E2F family members, including E2F-1, 2 and full-length E2F-3. These observations make E2F-3B the first example of an E2F gene giving rise to two different protein species and also suggest that E2F-3 and E2F-3B may have opposing roles in cell cycle control.

Histone deacetylases, transcriptional control, and cancer

A key event in the regulation of eukaryotic gene expression is the posttranslational modification of nucleosomal histones, which converts regions of chromosomes into transcriptionally active or inactive chromatin. The most well studied posttranslational modification of histones is the acetylation of epsilon-amino groups on conserved lysine residues in the histones' amino-terminal tail domains. Significant advances have been made in the past few years toward the identification of histone acetyltransferases and histone deacetylases. Currently, there are over a dozen cloned histone acetyltransferases and at least eight cloned human histone deacetylases. Interestingly, many histone deacetylases can function as transcriptional corepressors and, often, they are present in multi-subunit complexes. More intriguing, at least some histone deacetylases are associated with chromatin-remodeling machines. In addition, several studies have pointed to the possible involvement of histone deacetylases in human cancer. The availability of the cloned histone deacetylase genes has provided swift progress in the understanding of the mechanisms of deacetylases, their role in transcription, and their possible role in health and disease.

Histone deacetylases, transcriptional control, and cancer

A key event in the regulation of eukaryotic gene expression is the posttranslational modification of nucleosomal histones, which converts regions of chromosomes into transcriptionally active or inactive chromatin. The most well studied posttranslational modification of histones is the acetylation of epsilon-amino groups on conserved lysine residues in the histones' amino-terminal tail domains. Significant advances have been made in the past few years toward the identification of histone acetyltransferases and histone deacetylases. Currently, there are over a dozen cloned histone acetyltransferases and at least eight cloned human histone deacetylases. Interestingly, many histone deacetylases can function as transcriptional corepressors and, often, they are present in multi-subunit complexes. More intriguing, at least some histone deacetylases are associated with chromatin-remodeling machines. In addition, several studies have pointed to the possible involvement of histone deacetylases in human cancer. The availability of the cloned histone deacetylase genes has provided swift progress in the understanding of the mechanisms of deacetylases, their role in transcription, and their possible role in health and disease.

Density-dependent growth inhibition of fibroblasts ectopically expressing p27(kip1)

The cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk) inhibitor p27(kip1) is thought to be responsible for the onset and maintenance of the quiescent state. It is possible, however, that cells respond differently to p27(kip1) in different conditions, and using a BALB/c-3T3 cell line (termed p27-47) that inducibly expresses high levels of this protein, we show that the effect of p27(kip1) on cell cycle traverse is determined by cell density. We found that ectopic expression of p27(kip1) blocked the proliferation of p27-47 cells at high density but had little effect on the growth of cells at low density whether exponentially cycling or stimulated from quiescence. Regardless of cell density, the activities of cdk4 and cdk2 were markedly repressed by p27(kip1) expression, as was the cdk4-dependent dissociation of E2F4/p130 complexes. Infection of cells with SV40, a DNA tumor virus known to abrogate formation of p130- and Rb-containing complexes, allowed dense cultures to proliferate in the presence of supraphysiological amounts of p27(kip1) but did not stimulate cell cycle traverse when cultures were cotreated with the potent cdk2 inhibitor roscovitine. Our data suggest that residual levels of cyclin/cdk activity persist in p27(kip1)-expressing p27-47 cells and are sufficient for the growth of low-density cells and of high-density cells infected with SV40, and that effective disruption of p130 and/or Rb complexes is obligatory for the proliferation of high-density cultures.

The role of cyclin D3-dependent kinase in the phosphorylation of p130 in mouse BALB/c 3T3 fibroblasts

We have observed that cyclin D3-dependent kinase activity is increased in the late G1 phase in BALB/c 3T3 fibroblasts. The profile of cyclin D3-associated activity closely parallels that of cyclin D1, which is also induced after mitogenic stimulation of quiescent cells. These activities correlate with the appearance of hyperphosphorylated p130, an Rb family member important in regulating E2F-4 and E2F-5 activity in fibroblastic cells. We demonstrated, however, that only the cyclin D3 activity efficiently phosphorylated p130 in an in vitro kinase assay. This apparent specificity was further demonstrated by experiments which demonstrated that cyclin D3 was physically associated with p130 at the times when D3-dependent kinase activity and p130 hyperphosphorylation were observed. Examination of E2F by electrophoretic mobility shift assay revealed that E2F-4 DNA binding activity existed in a p130.E2F complex at times before D3-dependent kinase activity was apparent and in a free E2F-4 complex after D3 activity developed. Thus, our data suggest that cyclin D3 preferentially phosphorylates p130 and is thereby specifically targeted to overcoming growth-suppressive control mediated through p130 pathways.

E2F-3 accumulation is regulated by polypeptide stability

E2F is a complex family of transcription factors which appears to regulate the transcription of genes required for the S phase of the mammalian cell cycle. In the present work, we have examined the mechanisms regulating E2F-3 accumulation in mouse fibroblasts. We have determined that E2F-3 DNA binding activity is restricted to the G1/S transition and S phase in both normal BALB/c-3T3 fibroblasts and in an SV40 virus-transformed BALB/c-3T3 derivative. Immunoblot analysis indicates that G0 and G1 cells have little or no E2F-3 polypeptide and that the increase in the DNA binding activity of E2F-3 at the G1/S boundary is reflected by an increase in total E2F-3 protein. In contrast to the E2F-3 polypeptide, RNAse protection assays demonstrate that the E2F-3 mRNA is clearly present in G0 and G1 cells. Finally, pulse/chase experiments indicate that the half-life of E2F-3 is approximately 40-fold greater in cells blocked in S phase relative to asynchronously growing cells. Together, these results indicate that the accumulation E2F-3 at S phase may be regulated, at least in part, at the level of protein stability.

Subunit composition determines E2F DNA-binding site specificity

The product of the retinoblastoma (Rb) susceptibility gene, Rb-1, regulates the activity of a wide variety of transcription factors, such as E2F, in a cell cycle-dependent fashion. E2F is a heterodimeric transcription factor composed of two subunits each encoded by one of two related gene families, denoted E2F and DP. Five E2F genes, E2F-1 through E2F-5, and two DP genes, DP-1 and DP-2, have been isolated from mammals, and heterodimeric complexes of these proteins are expressed in most, if not all, vertebrate cells. It is not yet clear whether E2F/DP complexes regulate overlapping and/or specific cellular genes. Moreover, little is known about whether Rb regulates all or a subset of E2F-dependent genes. Using recombinant E2F, DP, and Rb proteins prepared in baculovirus-infected cells and a repetitive immunoprecipitation-PCR procedure (CASTing), we have identified consensus DNA-binding sites for E2F-1/DP-1, E2F-1/DP-2, E2F-4/DP-1, and E2F-4/DP-2 complexes as well as an Rb/E2F-1/DP-1 trimeric complex. Our data indicate that (i) E2F, DP, and Rb proteins each influence the selection of E2F-binding sites; (ii) E2F sites differ with respect to their intrinsic DNA-bending properties; (iii) E2F/DP complexes induce distinct degrees of DNA bending; and (iv) complex-specific E2F sites selected in vitro function distinctly as regulators of cell cycle-dependent transcription in vivo. These data indicate that the specific sequence of an E2F site may determine its role in transcriptional regulation and suggest that Rb/E2F complexes may regulate subsets of E2F-dependent cellular genes.

A role for a bent DNA structure in E2F-mediated transcription activation

We examined the role of promoter architecture, as well as that of the DNA-bending capacity of the E2F transcription factor family, in the activation of transcription. DNA phasing analysis revealed that a consensus E2F site in the E2F1 promoter possesses an inherent bend with a net magnitude of 40 +/-2 degrees and with an orientation toward the major groove relative to the center of the E2F site. The inherent DNA bend is reversed upon binding of E2F, generating a net bend with a magnitude of 25 +/- 3 degrees oriented toward the minor groove relative to the center of the E2F site. We also found that three members of the E2F family, in conjunction with the DP1 protein, bend the DNA toward the minor groove, suggesting that DNA bending is a characteristic of the entire E2F family. The Rb-E2F complex, on the other hand, does not reverse the intrinsic DNA bend. Analysis of a series of E2F1 deletion mutants defined E2F1 sequences which are not required for DNA binding but are necessary for the DNA-bending capacity of E2F. An internal region of E2F1, previously termed the marked box, which is highly homologous among E2F family members, was particularly important in DNA bending. We also found that a bent DNA structure can be a contributory component in the activation of the E2F1 promoter but is not critical in the repression of that promoter in quiescent cells. This finding suggests that E2F exhibits characteristics typical of modular transcription factors, with independent DNA-binding and transcriptional activation functions, but also has features of architectural factors that alter DNA structure.

Oncogenic capacity of the E2F1 gene

Previous experiments have identified the E2F transcription factor as a potential downstream target for the action of cellular regulatory activities, such as the Rb tumor suppressor protein, that control cell growth and that, when altered, contribute to the development of human tumors. In light of these findings, we have assayed the ability of the E2F1 and DP1 genes, which encode heterodimeric partners that together create E2F activity, to act in an oncogenic fashion. We find that E2F1, particularly in combination with the DP1 product, cooperates with an activated ras oncogene to induce the formation of morphologically transformed foci in primary rat embryo fibroblast cultures. In addition, an E2F1 chimeric protein, in which sequences involved in Rb binding have been replaced with the herpesvirus VP16 activation domain, exhibits increased transformation activity. Cells transfected with E2F1 and DP1 or the E2F1-VP16 chimera form colonies in soft agar and induce tumor formation in nude mice. We conclude that deregulated E2F1 expression and function can have oncogenic consequences.

Interacting domains of E2F1, DP1, and the adenovirus E4 protein

Recent experiments demonstrate that a family of related proteins constitute the E2F transcription factor activity and that the interaction of two of these gene products, E2F1 and DP1, generates a heterodimer with DNA binding and transcriptional activating capacity. Previous experiments have shown that the adenovirus E4 19-kDa protein facilitates the formation of a stable E2F dimer on the adenovirus E2 promoter. We now show that coexpression of the E2F1 and DP1 products in transfected SAOS-2 cells, together with the E4 product, generates a multicomponent complex with specificity to the adenovirus E2 promoter. Using a yeast two-hybrid assay system, we find that the E2F1 hydrophobic heptad repeat (E2F1 amino acid residues 206 to 283) allows interaction with a corresponding domain of the DP1 protein (amino acids 196 to 245). We also find that the adenovirus E4 protein interacts with the DP1 hydrophobic heptad repeat domain, but we could not detect a direct interaction between E2F1 and E4. Additional assays demonstrate that the E4 protein can dimerize. Since our previous experiments have shown that mutations within the E2F1 hydrophobic heptad repeat element abolish the E4-mediated transcription enhancement in transfection assays, we conclude that the E4 protein likely interacts with the E2F1-DP1 heterodimer by directly binding to the DP1 product. As a consequence of the ability of E4 to dimerize, we propose that the stable complex formed on the two E2F sites within the E2 promoter is composed of two E2F1-DP1 heterodimers held together by an E4 dimer.

A genetic analysis of the E2F1 gene distinguishes regulation by Rb, p107, and adenovirus E4

The cellular transcription factor E2F appears to be a target for the regulatory action of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor gene product. The recent isolation of the E2F1 cDNA clone, which encodes a polypeptide with properties characteristic of E2F, has now allowed a more detailed analysis of the regulation of E2F function by Rb as well as the Rb-related p107 protein and the adenovirus 19-kDa E4 gene product. Previous experiments have shown that each of these regulatory proteins can modulate the activity of cellular E2F. We find that each of these regulatory events can be mediated through the E2F1 product. Moreover, an examination of various E2F1 mutations reveals distinct specificities for these regulatory proteins. For instance, the ability of E4 to alter E2F1 function is dependent upon sequences within a putative leucine repeat of E2F1 as well as within the C-terminal acidic domain. In contrast, the leucine repeat element was not important for Rb- or p107-mediated inhibition of E2F1 activity. Although the C-terminal acidic domain of E2F1, previously shown to be important for Rb binding, appears to be a site for regulation of E2F1 by Rb and p107, point mutations within this region distinguish recognition by Rb and p107. These results underscore the complexity of E2F regulatory interactions and also demonstrate a qualitative distinction in the interactions of Rb and p107 with E2F1, perhaps reflective of functional differences.

Expression of transcription factor E2F1 induces quiescent cells to enter S phase

Several lines of evidence implicate the E2F transcription factor as an important component of cell proliferation control. First, E2F binding sites are found in the promoters of genes responsive to proliferation signals and the level of E2F binding activity increases at a time when many of these genes are activated. Second, the tumour suppressor protein Rb, as well as the related p107 protein, complexes with E2F, resulting in an inhibition of E2F transcriptional activity. Third, oncogenic products of the DNA tumour viruses can dissociate these E2F complexes. We provide here direct evidence that E2F is involved in cellular proliferation control. Specifically, we demonstrate that overexpression of the E2F1 complementary DNA can activate DNA synthesis in cells that would otherwise growth-arrest, with an efficiency that is similar to that achieved by the expression of the adenovirus E1A gene. Moreover, microinjection of the E2F1 cDNA into quiescent cells can induce S-phase entry, whereas two E2F1 mutants, which are unable to transactivate the DHFR and TK promoters, are unable to induce S phase. We conclude that the E2F transcription factor plays an important role in progression into S phase and that this probably coincides with its capacity to stimulate transcription.

Reduced binding of TFIID to transcriptionally compromised mutants of VP16

Activator proteins that control transcription initiation by RNA polymerase II usually have two domains: one binds to DNA, and the other activates transcription. A particularly potent acidic activation domain at the C terminus of the herpes simplex virus protein VP16 binds directly and selectively to the human and yeast TATA box-binding factor TFIID. We have now investigated the biological significance of this in vitro interaction by using mutant forms of VP16. For changes at the critical phenylalanine residue at position 442 of VP16 there was a good correlation between transactivation activity in vivo and the binding of VP16 to TFIID in vitro. In contrast, mutants with reduced negative charge were more defective for binding than for activation.

Critical structural elements of the VP16 transcriptional activation domain

Virion protein 16 (VP16) of herpes simplex virus type 1 contains an acidic transcriptional activation domain. Missense mutations within this domain have provided insights into the structural elements critical for its function. Net negative charge contributed to, but was not sufficient for, transcriptional activation by VP16. A putative amphipathic alpha helix did not appear to be an important structural component of the activation domain. A phenylalanine residue at position 442 was exquisitely sensitive to mutation. Transcriptional activators of several classes contain hydrophobic amino acids arranged in patterns resembling that of VP16. Therefore, the mechanism of transcriptional activation by VP16 and other proteins may involve both ionic and specific hydrophobic interactions with target molecules.

Selective inhibition of activated but not basal transcription by the acidic activation domain of VP16: evidence for transcriptional adaptors

The interaction between the chimeric activator GAL4-VP16, consisting of the DNA binding domain of GAL4 and the acidic activation domain of VP16, and its target in the transcriptional machinery was studied in vitro. GAL4-VP16 stimulated transcription from a promoter bearing GAL4 sites, and greatly inhibited transcription from a promoter bearing binding sites for the dA:dT activator and from a basal promoter bearing only a TATA box. Mutations in the acidic domain that reduced activation from the GAL4 site promoter also reduced inhibition from the dA:dT promoter, indicating a similar interaction between VP16 and its target in both processes. Strikingly, if the DNA binding domain of GAL4-VP16 was occupied by a GAL4 site oligonucleotide, the protein inhibited activation by the dA:dT activator but did not inhibit basal transcription. We propose that, under these conditions, GAL4-VP16 acted to titrate an "adaptor" that bridges an interaction between the upstream activator and the basic transcriptional machinery at the TATA box.

Intracellular Localization of the Neurotoxin 2,4-Diaminobutyric Acid in Lathyrus sylvestris L. Leaf Tissue

The intracellular distribution of the neurotoxin 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DABA) in mature leaves of the perennial legume Lathyrus sylvestris L. var ;Lathco' (flatpea) was determined using subcellular fractions from mesophyll protoplasts. Chloroplasts contained about 15% of the cellular DABA. At least 75% of the DABA was vacuolar, based on the assumptions that each protoplast contained a single vacuole and that acid phosphatase occurred exclusively in the vacuole. DABA was not detectable in peroxisomal and mitochondrial fractions. Because the vacuole is not a major site of amino acid synthesis, this distribution implicates synthesis of DABA within chloroplasts with subsequent transport to and storage within the vacuoles of the mesophyll cells.