Tetrodotoxin blocks native cardiac L-type calcium channels but not CaV1.2 channels expressed in HEK cells

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been believed for a long time to be a selective inhibitor of voltage-gated fast Na(+) channels in excitable tissues, including mammalian myocardium. Recently TTX has been shown to block cardiac L-type Ca(2+) current (ICa,L). Furthermore, this inhibition was ascribed to binding of TTX to the outer pore of the Ca(2+) channel, contributing to the selectivity filter region. In this study the TTX-sensitivity of Cav1.2 channels, expressed in HEK cells, was tested using the whole cell version of the patch clamp technique and compared to the TTX-sensitivity of native canine ICa,L. Cav1.2 channels mediate Ca(2+) current in ventricular myocardium of various mammalian species. Surprisingly, TTX failed to inhibit Cav1.2 current up to the concentration of 100 μM - in contrast to ICa,L - in spite of the fact that the kinetic properties of the ICa,L and Cav1.2 currents were similar. The possible reasons for this discrepancy are discussed. Present results may question the suitability of a single pore-forming channel subunit, expressed in a transfection system, for electrophysiological or pharmacological studies.

Two-dimensional receptor patterns in the plasma membrane of cells. A critical evaluation of their identification, origin and information content

A concise review is presented on the nature, possible origin and functional significance of cell surface receptor patterns in the plasma membrane of lymphoid cells. A special emphasize has been laid on the available methodological approaches, their individual virtues and sources of errors. Fluorescence energy transfer is one of the oldest available means for studying non-randomized co-distribution patterns of cell surface receptors. A detailed and critical description is given on the generation of two-dimensional cell surface receptor patterns based on pair-wise energy transfer measurements. A second hierarchical-level of receptor clusters have been described by electron and scanning force microscopies after immuno-gold-labeling of distinct receptor kinds. The origin of these receptor islands at a nanometer scale and island groups at a higher hierarchical (mum) level, has been explained mostly by detergent insoluble glycolipid-enriched complexes known as rafts, or detergent insoluble glycolipids (DIGs). These rafts are the most-likely organizational forces behind at least some kind of receptor clustering [K. Simons et al., Nature 387 (1997) 569]. These models, which have great significance in trans-membrane signaling and intra-membrane and intracellular trafficking, are accentuating the necessity to revisit the Singer-Nicolson fluid mosaic membrane model and substitute the free protein diffusion with a restricted diffusion concept [S.J. Singer et al., Science 175 (1972) 720].

Hypoglycemia activates compensatory mechanism of glucose metabolism of brain

The effect of plasma glucose concentration on the cerebral uptake of [18F]-fluorodeoxy-D-glucose (FDG) was studied in a broad concentration range in a rabbit brain model using dynamic FDG PET measurements. Hypoglycemic and hyperglycemic conditions were maintained by manipulating plasma glucose applying i.v. glucose or insulin load. FDG utilization (K) and cerebral glucose metabolic rate (CGMR) were evaluated in a plasma glucose concentration range between 0.5 mM and 26 mM from the kinetic constant k1, k2, k3 obtained by the Sokoloff model of FDG accumulation. A decreasing set of standard FDG uptake values found with increasing blood glucose concentration was explained by competition between the plasma glucose and the radiopharmacon FDG. A similar trend was observed for the forward kinetic constants k1, and k3 in the entire concentration range studied. The same decreasing tendency of k2 was of a smaller magnitude and was reverted at the lowest glucose concentrations where a pronounced decrease of this backward transport rate constant was detected. Our kinetic data indicate a modulation of the kinetics of carbohydrate metabolism by the blood glucose concentration and report on a special mechanism compensating for the low glucose supply under conditions of extremely low blood glucose level.

A slow outward current and a hypoosmolality induced anion conductance in embryonic chicken osteoclasts

In this paper we report on a hypoosmolality induced current, I(osmo), in embryonic chicken osteoclasts, which could only be studied when blocking a simultaneously active, unidentified slow outward current, I(slo). I(slo) was observed in all of the examined cells when both the intracellular and extracellular solutions contained sodium as the major cation and no potassium. The current was outwardly rectifying and activated at membrane potentials more positive than -44 +/- 12 mV (n = 31). The time to half activation of the current was also voltage dependent and was 350 ms at Vm = +80 mV, and 78 ms at Vm = +120 mV. The current did not inactivate during periods up to 5 s. Extracellular 4-AP (5 mM), TEA (5 mM) and Ba2+ (1 mM), blockers of K+ conductances in chicken osteoclasts, did not influence I(slo). However, I(slo) was inhibited by 50 microM extracellular verapamil, which allowed us to study I(osmo) in isolation. Exposure of the osteoclasts to hypotonic solution resulted in the development of a depolarization activated I(osmo). It developed after a 1-min delay and reached its maximum within 10 minutes. Half-maximal activation occurred after 4.4 +/- 0.9 min (n = 9). The current activated within a few ms upon depolarization and did not inactivate during at least 5 sec. I(osmo) reversed around the calculated Nernst potential for Cl- (E(Cl) = +7.3 mV and V(rev) = +5.4 +/- 3.6 mV, n = 9). The underlying conductance, G(osmo) exhibited moderate outward rectification around 0 mV in symmetrical Cl- solutions. Ion substitution experiments showed that G(osmo) is an anion conductance with P(Cl) approximately = P(F) > P(gluc) >> P(Na). I(osmo) was blocked by 0.5 mM SITS but 50 microM verapamil, 5 mM TEA, 5 mM 4-AP, 1 mM Ba2+, 50 microM cytochalasin D and 0.5 mM alendronate did not have any effect on the current. Cl- currents have been implicated in charge neutralization during osteoclastic acid secretion for bone resorption. The present results imply that osmolality may be a factor controlling this charge neutralization.

Membrane permeability changes induce hyperpolarization in transformed lymphoid cells under high-density culture conditions

BACKGROUND

Membrane potential changes in cells from the human lymphoid B cell line, JY, evoked by increasing cell density in culture were investigated, as data published on other cell types are controversial. An attempt was also made to clear the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

Nonadherent JY cells were isolated from high-density plateau-phase cultures (type A cells), medium-density log-phase cultures (type B cells), and low-density lag-phase cultures (type C cells). They were analyzed for transmembrane potential, intracellular free concentration of potassium and sodium, membrane permeability for monovalent cations, cell cycle distribution by measuring DNA content, and glucose uptake.

RESULTS

C type cells proved to be relatively depolarized (-41 +/- 3 mV) and cells obtained from the highest density cultures hyperpolarized (-60 +/- 3 mV). Intracellular concentrations ([K](i) = 92-97 mM and [Na](i) = 34-35 mM) were almost identical for each type of cell. The sodium/potassium permeability constant ratio in the A and C type of cells was 0.047 and 0.094, respectively. High-density culture conditions resulted in a pronounced G(1)-phase arrest.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in the membrane potential values induced by high-density culture conditions were maintained by changes in the membrane permeability for the monovalent cations.

[Comparative analysis of quantifying methods in FDG-PET scans of the brain]

The comparative analysis of three tracer kinetic methods most frequently applied for the quantization of the results of FDG-PET-brain scans was performed. The data of measurements on five healthy patients were evaluated by the most general method developed by Phelps, the Patlak-procedure and the SUV- (standard uptake value) method. It was demonstrated by the aid of correlation analysis that the applicability of the results of the more simple methods to estimate glucose metabolic rate (GMR) as calculated by the Phelps-method depended on the kind of the selected region of the brain. It was shown that the most considerable distortion occurred in the case of the same anatomical regions of the brain with both simplified methods. These regions were located either in the white matter or in the vicinity of larger size blood vessels or they were elements of the base of the skull [gyrus rectus (l. u.), pons, capsula interna (l. u.), cerebellum (l. u.), corpus callosum]. The distorted estimation is explained by the fact that the simpler models neglect dephosphorylation of the FDG-6P, and they also disregard the contribution of the intravascular activity to the tissue radioactivity as determined by the relatively low resolution PET measurement. The correlation coefficient between the GMR as calculated by the Phelps-method and glucose consumption data by the investigated simpler methods had very low values for regions located in the white matter, eventual close to blood vessels or being elements of the base of the skull.

Docosahexaenoic acid-containing phospholipid molecular species in brains of vertebrates

The fatty acid composition of phospholipids and the contents of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-containing diacyl phosphatidylcholine and diacyl phosphatidylethanolamine molecular species were determined from brains of five fresh-water fish species from a boreal region adapted to 5 degrees C, five fresh-water fish species from a temperate region acclimated to 5 degrees C, five fresh-water fish species from a temperate region acclimated to 20 degrees C, and three fresh water fish species from a subtropic region adapted to 25-26 degrees C, as well as six mammalian species and seven bird species. There was little difference in DHA levels of fish brains from the different thermal environments; mammalian and bird brain phospholipids contained a few percentage points less DHA than those of the fish investigated. Molecular species of 22:6/22:6, 22:6/20:5, 22:6/20:4, 16:0/22:6, 18:0/22:6, and 18:1/22:6 were identified from all brain probes, and 16:0/22:6, 18:0/22:6, and 18:1/22:6 were the dominating species. Cold-water fish brains were rich in 18:1/22:6 diacyl phosphatidylethanolamine (and, to a lesser degree, in diacyl phosphatidylcholine), and its level decreased with increasing environmental/body temperature. The ratio of 18:0/22:6 to 16:0/22:6 phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine was inversely related to body temperature. Phospholipid vesicles from brains of cold-acclimated fish were more fluid, as assessed by using a 1, 6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene fluorescent probe, than those from bird brains, but the fluidities were almost equal at the respective body temperatures. It is concluded that the relative amounts of these molecular species and their ratios to each other are the major factors contributing to the maintenance of proper fluidity relationships throughout the evolutionary chain as well as helping to maintain important brain functions such as signal transduction and membrane permeability.

Ethanol and halothane differently modulate HLA class I and class II oligomerization. A new look at the mode of action of anesthetic agents through fluorescence spectroscopy

The field of research considering the working mechanism of anesthetic agents is a complex one and the site or sites of action of general anesthetics are yet to be elucidated. Through the years, on the molecular level, the discussion has shifted from the lipid theories to the more specific interaction with the proteins responsible for the signal transduction. While this approach led to several models, they offer, at best, partial explanations for the observed phenomena. Anesthetic agents interact with many systems, of which the neuronal is best studied, leaving interaction with the immune defense system relatively unexplored. In this study we focus on the interaction of ethanol and halothane with the co-localization on the membrane of HLA I and II molecules. We show that ethanol tends to randomize the distribution of HLA I and II molecules, while halothane increases the clustering of HLA I proteins. The notion that anesthetics modulate cell function by disrupting clustering and thereby promoting a random distribution is a novel approach that may explain the general involvement of many systems during exposition to anesthetic drugs. In this study we show the disturbance of co-localization of molecules that may form a functional network. The relevance of this finding depends on the importance of these networks for extracellular and intracellular processes.

Membrane hyperpolarization removes inactivation of Ca2+ channels, leading to Ca2+ influx and subsequent initiation of sperm motility in the common carp

Change of osmolality surrounding spawned sperm from isotonic to hypotonic causes the initiation of sperm motility in the common carp. Here we show that membrane-permeable cAMP does not initiate motility of carp sperm that is quiescent in isotonic solution, and that motility of the demembranated sperm can be reactivated without cAMP. Furthermore, the cAMP level does not change during the initiation of sperm motility, and inhibitors of protein kinase do not affect sperm motility, suggesting that no cAMP-dependent system is necessary for the regulation of sperm motility. Sperm motility could not be initiated in Ca(2+)-free hypoosmotic solutions, and significant increase in the intracellular Ca(2+) level was observed by a Ca-sensitive fluorescence dye during hypoosmolality-induced active motion period. The demembranated sperm cells were fully reactivated in the solutions containing 10(-7) to 10(-5) M Ca(2+). Ca(2+) channel blockers such as verapamil and omega-conotoxin reversibly inhibited the initiation of sperm motility, suggesting that Ca(2+) influx is the prerequisite for the initiation of carp sperm motility. Motility of intact sperm was completely blocked; however, that of the demembranated sperm was not inhibited by the calmodulin inhibitor W7, suggesting that the calmodulin bound close to the plasma membrane participated in the initiation of sperm motility. Flow cytometric membrane potential measurements and spectrophotometric measurements by using fluorescence dyes showed transient membrane hyperpolarization on hypoosmolality-induced motility. This article discusses the role of membrane hyperpolarization on removal of inactivation of Ca(2+) channels, leading to Ca(2+) influx at the initiation of carp sperm motility.

Flow cytometric determination of intracellular free potassium concentration

A flow cytometric assay has been developed for determination of intracellular free potassium concentration ([K+]i). Investigated cells, loaded with the fluorescent pH indicator 2',7bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5(and-6)-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF), are incubated in the presence of nigericin, and the intracellular pH is measured. The ionophore maintains the same ratio value [H+]/[K+] on both sides of the cytoplasmic membrane, so [K+]i can be evaluated from the measured intracellular pH (pHi) and the known parameters of the buffer. Application of the method revealed that the intracellular potassium concentration is significantly higher in lymphocytes than in proliferating cells of HUT-78, U266, and JY cell lines. A surprisingly low (60 mM) [K+]i concentration was observed with sperm cells of common carp. This method allows measurements on individual cells, provides data of excellent statistics, and still does not require large amounts of material. These features offer remarkable advantages over other techniques used for intracellular K+ measurements, such as steady-state fluorescence, atom absorption photometry, or energy-dispersive x-ray analysis.

Role of extracellular and intracellular pH in carp sperm motility and modifications by hyperosmosis of regulation of the Na+/H+ exchanger

Recently developed flow cytometric methods (Trón et al.: Mol Immunol 27:1307-1311, 1990) to measure the intracellular pH (pHi) and intracellular potassium concentration in mammalian cells by using the fluorescent pH-indicator dye 2',7bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5 (and-6)-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF) were adopted for measuring these parameters in carp sperm. The intracellular potassium concentration of the carp sperm was 62.4 +/- 5.3 mM. This is very similar to the potassium concentration of the seminal plasma (87 +/- 16 mM), and it suggests a depolarized state of the sperm cell in the semen. An average pHi value of 7.06 +/- 0.11 was obtained by measuring sperm samples taken from ten animals. Changes in the ionic composition of the environment did not alter pHi. Sperm motility was initiated by transferring the cells to an environment of 110 mOsm osmolality. This hypoosmotic shock induced fast changes in the membrane structure that could be reversed by restoring physiologic osmolality. Activation was accompanied by a fast alkalinization of the sperm cells. This pH change was amiloride sensitive, suggesting the involvement of the Na+/H+ exchanger in the activation process. Alkalinization of acid-loaded sperm cells depended on the osmolality of the environment. Equilibrium pHi of these cells in hyperosmotic buffers was substantially lower relative to cells in an isoosmotic environment. Effects of the extracellular and intracellular pH on carp sperm motility were also examined. Extracellular pH below 5.5 abolished sperm motility completely. Alkaline extracellular pH did not alter the duration of sperm motility even at extreme values (pHe = 9.6). Duration of the flagellar motion did not depend on the pHi between values of 6.5 and 8.5; however, it was significantly reduced both below and above this range. No motility was observed below pHi = 6.0 or above pHi = 9.5 with a 10 min incubation time at these pH values prior to activation. Effects of the extracellular and intracellular pH on sperm motility were partially reversible.

Immunosuppressors inhibit voltage-gated potassium channels in human peripheral blood lymphocytes

The effects of immunosuppressive agents on the potassium current of human peripheral blood lymphocytes have been studied using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Cyclosporin A (10 micrograms/ml), rapamycin (10 micrograms/ml) and FK-506 (2.5 micrograms/ml) reduced the peak K+ current by approximately 40, 30 and 40% of the control, respectively, without any change in the reversal potential of the current. The current inhibition was similar at all membrane potentials studied and was accompanied with an increase in the rate of K+ current inactivation. Membrane potential measurements in current-clamp showed a marked depolarization of the membrane (>10 mV) upon the addition of either immunosuppressor to the cells. Our findings revealed that the voltage-dependent potassium current in human peripheral blood lymphocytes is inhibited by Cyclosporin A and other immunosuppressors, resulting in a depolarized membrane potential.

Reversal of multidrug resistance by valinomycin is overcome by CCCP

Reversal of P-glycoprotein-mediated multidrug resistance by valinomycin is overcome by the proton ionophore, CCCP. This effect, a complete suppression of the 5- to 10-fold valinomycin-induced reversal ("re-reversal"), exhibits a sharp extracellular potassium concentration ([K+(0)]) dependence. It is observed at [K+(0)] > 2-4 mM and not at [K+(0)] greater than or equal to 2 mM, in the case of the fluorescent substrates rhodamine 123 and daunorubicin. The fact that "re-reversal" is detected only for the combination of CCCP with valinomycin raises the possibility that a direct interaction between these ionophores may explain the phenomenon. We show spectroscopic evidence of such an interaction, with a [K+(0)]-dependence similar to that of the "re-reversal." These data suggest that the reversal of P-glycoprotein activity by valinomycin can be compromised by anionic compounds such as CCCP due to complex formation. More generally, molecular interactions involving P-glycoprotein substrates or reversing agents may significantly affect drug accumulation in multidrug resistant cells.

Tetrodotoxin-sensitive fast Na+ current in embryonic chicken osteoclasts

A voltage-dependent, fast, transient inward current was characterized in embryonic chicken osteoclasts using the permeabilized patch configuration of the patch-clamp technique. The current was activated by depolarizations to higher than -28 +/- 4 mV from a holding potential of -80 mV. It peaked within 1-1.5 ms, and inactivated within 3.3-6.9 ms. The 50% inactivation voltage was -59 +/- 6 mV with a steepness factor of 0.11 +/- 0.06. The current disappeared with the removal of extracellular Na+ and was reversibly blocked by tetrodotoxin (K0.5 < 15 nM) but not by verapamil (< or = 100 microM). We conclude that this new current in embryonic chicken osteoclasts is a sodium current known from excitable cells.

Flow cytometric determination of absolute membrane potential of cells

Membrane potential measurements using fluorescent membrane potential indicator dyes report on relative changes but usually do not result in an absolute value of the measured parameter. The method developed in this paper is based on the assumption that the negatively charged bis-oxonol distributes across the cytoplasmic membrane according to the Nernst equation. It is further supposed that the fluorescence intensity measured from a given stained cell is a single-value function of the intracellular dye concentration. The protocol suggested incorporates the construction of a calibration curve (fluorescence intensity measured from stained cells vs. extracellular dye concentration). This allows the evaluation of the membrane potential in millivolts using fluorescence readings of the cells both in the depolarized state and in the state of interest. Good agreement was found between absolute membrane potential data of human peripheral blood lymphocytes by our method and results of parallel patch clamp measurements.

Effects of bretylium tosylate on voltage-gated potassium channels in human T lymphocytes

Using the patch-clamp technique, we determined that bretylium tosylate, a quaternary ammonium compound possessing immunomodulating activity, decreased the whole-cell K+ current in human T lymphocytes, in a dose-dependent manner, in the 0.05-5 mM extracellular concentration range. Bretylium tosylate prolonged the recovery from inactivation and accelerated the inactivation and deactivation of the K+ current but did not influence the kinetics of activation or the voltage dependence of activation and steady state inactivation of the K+ conductance. The percentage of drug-induced block was independent of membrane potential. K+ channel block by bretylium tosylate was partially and slowly removable by washing with drug-free extracellular solution. Bovine serum albumin (10 mg/ml) in the bath lifted the drug-induced block almost instantaneously, although not completely. In control experiments bovine serum albumin increased the inactivation time constant of the K+ channels but left the peak K+ current amplitude unaffected. On the basis of the experimental evidence, a gating-dependent allosteric interaction is suggested for the mechanism of drug action. The effective dose range, time of exposure, and reversibility of bretylium tosylate-induced K+ channel block correlated well with the same parameters of the drug-induced inhibition of T lymphocyte activation. The reported effects of bretylium tosylate on T cell mitogenesis can be regarded partly as a consequence of its blocking effects on voltage-gated K+ channels.

Hypo-osmotic shock induces an osmolality-dependent permeabilization and structural changes in the membrane of carp sperm

We carried out spectrofluorimetric and flow cytometric measurements to investigate the effect of hypo-osmotic shock on cell membranes of common carp sperm. The time course of the permeability of the sperm cell membrane, as monitored by DNA-related propidium iodide (PI) fluorescence, was followed for 30 min after dilution of semen in hypo-osmotic environments of different ionic strengths. Spectrofluorimetric measurements indicated a continuous increase in the total PI emission intensity of a sperm suspension. Cell-by-cell flow cytometric measurements suggested that the permeability changes were of the all-or-none type. The permeabilized fraction of cells in the individual samples was time and osmolality dependent. The number and percentage of cells in which DNA was stained by PI increased gradually over time and reached a steady-state plateau value after 5-15 min. This equilibrium fraction of cells with a PI-permeable cytoplasmic membrane displayed an inverse relationship with the osmolality of the diluent, having a near 100% value for fresh water and distilled water. Dilution of sperm in hypo-osmotic medium brought about a fast decrease in the forward light-scattering signal on a short time scale compared to the pre-steady-state time of the permeabilization. With the addition of extracellular Ca2+ (1.8 mM), restoration of the light scattering signal was observed. Permeabilization of the membrane and restoration of light scattering were not coincident in time. We propose a two-dimensional reorganization of the lipid structure as the underlying mechanism of the latter process.

Bretylium-induced voltage-gated sodium current in human lymphocytes

Using the whole-cell variation of the patch-clamp technique it has been determined that 0.25-3 mM bretylium tosylate (BT) exerts a repolarizing effect on partially depolarized human lymphocytes. The repolarizing effect was ouabain (40 microM)-sensitive, and was inhibited by the removal of external Na+ or by the Na(+)-channel-blocker amiloride (10-44 microM), but K(+)-channel-blockers 4-aminopyridine (0.1-5 mM) and quinine (100 microM) had no effect. The drug induced a sodium dependent, amiloride-sensitive transient inward current reaching its maximum value approx. 20-30 s after the administration of BT and lasting for 6-10 min. This current was activated by depolarization within 25 ms at around -42 mV, its inactivation took about 2 s and its reversal potential was +24 +/- 5 mV. An increase in the intracellular sodium concentration (1.8-3.2 mM) has been observed upon the addition of BT by monitoring the SBFI fluorescence of the dye-loaded cells. It has been shown that whole-cell K+ currents are significantly decreased by BT. The existence of voltage and ligand (BT)-gated sodium channels has been postulated in human lymphocytes. These channels are thought to participate in the initiation of membrane repolarization in human lymphocytes, and thereby influence mitogenic or antigen-induced cell-activation processes.

Dynamic physical interactions of plasma membrane molecules generate cell surface patterns and regulate cell activation processes

Molecular interaction and transmembrane signal transducing events generate a very dynamic and ever changing "pattern" in the plasma membranes. Lymphocytes, the key functional elements of the immune system, are eminently suited to be the primary targets to investigate these proximity, mobility, or other physical-chemical changes in their plasma membranes. Recently, a number of experiments suggested that processed peptides from antigens can bind specific components of MHC molecules (Elliott et al., 1991). This is certainly a way to alter their structure. Cell surface patterns of topological nature, assembly and disassembly of oligomeric receptor structure like the IL-2 receptor have been investigated by sophisticated biophysical techniques. The dynamic changes in the two-dimensional cell surface pattern and intramolecular conformational changes within this "larger" macro-pattern may have a strong regulatory role in signal transducing and intercellular recognition processes. Recent data on these problems are presented together with brief and critical discussions.

A sodium channel opener inhibits stimulation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

The role of membrane potential changes in T cell activation was studied on human peripheral blood lymphocytes stimulated with phytohemagglutinin. Addition of bretylium tosylate, a sodium channels opener, to PHA treated lymphocytes modified the membrane potential and consequently blocked cell activation in a dose-dependent fashion. BT was non-toxic even in long-term (72 hr) incubations. It was reversibly removable, and the removal restored the stimulatory effect of PHA. 3H-thymidine incorporation was blocked if BT was present during the first 20-24 hr of the mitogenic activation. The later BT was added after PHA, the less inhibition of proliferation was observed. BT hyperpolarized the lymphocytes also in the presence of PHA. BT hindered the depolarizing effect of high extracellular potassium concns. The sustained polarized state of the lymphocytes did not influence the intracellular calcium increase upon PHA treatment. IL-2 and transferrin receptor expression was not hindered by BT during PHA stimulation of lymphocytes. Addition of rIL-2 did not abolish the inhibitory effect of BT. According to cell-cycle analysis BT arrested the majority of the cells in G1 phase. It is suggested that cell activation demands the flexible maintenance of a relatively narrow membrane potential "window". Any sustained and significant hyper-, or depolarization, may dramatically decrease the effectivity of transmembrane signalling.