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Rogacka D, Rachubik P, Audzeyenka I, Kulesza T, Szrejder M, Myślińska D, Angielski S, Piwkowska A. Inhibition of phosphodiesterase 5A by tadalafil improves SIRT1 expression and activity in insulin-resistant podocytes. Cell Signal 2023; 105:110622. [PMID: 36754339 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2023.110622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A decrease in intracellular levels of 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) has been implicated in the progression of diabetic nephropathy. Hyperglycemia significantly inhibits cGMP-dependent pathway activity in the kidney, leading to glomerular damage and proteinuria. The enhancement of activity of this pathway that is associated with an elevation of cGMP levels may be achieved by inhibition of the cGMP specific phosphodiesterase 5A (PDE5A) using selective inhibitors, such as tadalafil. Hyperglycemia decreased the insulin responsiveness of podocytes and impaired podocyte function. These effects were associated with lower protein amounts and activity of the protein deacetylase sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) and a decrease in the phosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase (AMPK). We found that PDE5A protein levels increased in hyperglycemia, and PDE5A downregulation improved the insulin responsiveness of podocytes with reestablished SIRT1 expression and activity. PDE5A inhibitors potentiate nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP signaling, and NO modulates the activity and expression of SIRT1. Therefore, we investigated the effects of tadalafil on SIRT1 and AMPK in the context of improving the insulin sensitivity in podocytes and podocyte function in hyperglycemia. Our study revealed that tadalafil restored SIRT1 expression and activity and activated AMPK by increasing its phosphorylation. Tadalafil also restored stimulating effect of insulin on glucose transport in podocytes with high glucose-induced insulin resistance. Additionally, tadalafil improved the function of podocytes that were exposed to high glucose concentrations. Our results display novel mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of glomerulopathies in diabetes, which may contribute to the development of more effective treatment strategies for diabetic nephropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Rogacka
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland; Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland.
| | - Patrycja Rachubik
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland.
| | - Irena Audzeyenka
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland; Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland.
| | - Tomasz Kulesza
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland.
| | - Maria Szrejder
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland.
| | - Dorota Myślińska
- Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, Gdansk 80-308, Poland.
| | - Stefan Angielski
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Piwkowska
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland; Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk 80-308, Poland.
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Rogacka D, Rachubik P, Audzeyenka I, Szrejder M, Kulesza T, Myślińska D, Angielski S, Piwkowska A. Enhancement of cGMP-dependent pathway activity ameliorates hyperglycemia-induced decrease in SIRT1-AMPK activity in podocytes: Impact on glucose uptake and podocyte function. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Res 2022; 1869:119362. [PMID: 36152759 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2022.119362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Hyperglycemia significantly decreases 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-dependent pathway activity in the kidney. A well-characterized downstream signaling effector of cGMP is cGMP-dependent protein kinase G (PKG), exerting a wide range of downstream effects, including vasodilation and vascular smooth muscle cells relaxation. In podocytes that are exposed to high glucose concentrations, crosstalk between the protein deacetylase sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) and adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase (AMPK) decreased, attenuating insulin responsiveness and impairing podocyte function. The present study examined the effect of enhancing cGMP-dependent pathway activity on SIRT1-AMPK crosstalk in podocytes under hyperglycemic conditions. We found that enhancing cGMP-dependent pathway activity using a cGMP analog was associated with increases in SIRT1 protein levels and activity, with a concomitant increase in the degree of AMPK phosphorylation. The beneficial effects of enhancing cGMP-dependent pathway activity on SIRT1-AMPK crosstalk also included improvements in podocyte function. Based on our findings, we postulate an important role for SIRT1-AMPK crosstalk in the regulation of albumin permeability in hyperglycemia that is strongly associated with activity of the cGMP-dependent pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Rogacka
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland; Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Patrycja Rachubik
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Irena Audzeyenka
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland; Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Maria Szrejder
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Tomasz Kulesza
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Dorota Myślińska
- Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Stefan Angielski
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Piwkowska
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland; Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
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Rogacka D, Audzeyenka I, Piwkowska A. Regulation of podocytes function by AMP-activated protein kinase. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 692:108541. [PMID: 32781053 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Podocytes are unique, highly specialized, terminally differentiated cells that form an essential, integral part of the glomerular filter. These cells limit the outside border of the glomerular basement membrane, forming a tight barrier that prevents significant protein loss from the capillary space. The slit diaphragm formed by podocytes is crucial for maintaining glomerular integrity and function. They are the target of injury in many glomerular diseases, including hypertension and diabetes mellitus. Accumulating studies have revealed that AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an essential cellular energy sensor, might play a fundamental role in regulating podocyte metabolism and function. AMPK participates in insulin signaling, therefore controls glucose uptake and podocytes insulin sensitivity. It is also involved in insulin-dependent cytoskeleton reorganization in podocytes, mediating glomerular albumin permeability. AMPK plays an important role in the regulation of autophagy/apoptosis processes, which influence podocytes viability. The present review aimed to highlight the molecular mechanisms associated with AMPK that are involved in the regulation of podocyte function in health and disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Rogacka
- Mossakowski Medical Research Centre Polish Academy of Sciences, Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland; University of Gdansk, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Irena Audzeyenka
- Mossakowski Medical Research Centre Polish Academy of Sciences, Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland; University of Gdansk, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Piwkowska
- Mossakowski Medical Research Centre Polish Academy of Sciences, Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland; University of Gdansk, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland.
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Audzeyenka I, Rachubik P, Rogacka D, Typiak M, Kulesza T, Angielski S, Rychłowski M, Wysocka M, Gruba N, Lesner A, Saleem MA, Piwkowska A. Cathepsin C is a novel mediator of podocyte and renal injury induced by hyperglycemia. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Res 2020; 1867:118723. [PMID: 32302668 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2020.118723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A growing body of evidence suggests a role of proteolytic enzymes in the development of diabetic nephropathy. Cathepsin C (CatC) is a well-known regulator of inflammatory responses, but its involvement in podocyte and renal injury remains obscure. We used Zucker rats, a genetic model of metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance, to determine the presence, quantity, and activity of CatC in the urine. In addition to the animal study, we used two cellular models, immortalized human podocytes and primary rat podocytes, to determine mRNA and protein expression levels via RT-PCR, Western blot, and confocal microscopy, and to evaluate CatC activity. The role of CatC was analyzed in CatC-depleted podocytes using siRNA and glycolytic flux parameters were obtained from extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) measurements. In functional analyses, podocyte and glomerular permeability to albumin was determined. We found that podocytes express and secrete CatC, and a hyperglycemic environment increases CatC levels and activity. Both high glucose and non-specific activator of CatC phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) diminished nephrin, cofilin, and GLUT4 levels and induced cytoskeletal rearrangements, increasing albumin permeability in podocytes. These negative effects were completely reversed in CatC-depleted podocytes. Moreover, PMA, but not high glucose, increased glycolytic flux in podocytes. Finally, we demonstrated that CatC expression and activity are increased in the urine of diabetic Zucker rats. We propose a novel mechanism of podocyte injury in diabetes, providing deeper insight into the role of CatC in podocyte biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irena Audzeyenka
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland; Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Patrycja Rachubik
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Dorota Rogacka
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland; Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Poland
| | - Marlena Typiak
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Tomasz Kulesza
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Stefan Angielski
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Michał Rychłowski
- Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk - Medical University of Gdansk, Poland
| | | | | | - Adam Lesner
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Poland
| | - Moin A Saleem
- Bristol Renal, University of Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Agnieszka Piwkowska
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland; Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Poland
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Li M, Alfieri CM, Morello W, Cellesi F, Armelloni S, Mattinzoli D, Montini G, Messa P. Assessment of increased glomerular permeability associated with recurrent focal segmental glomerulosclerosis using an in vitro model of the glomerular filtration barrier. J Nephrol 2019; 33:747-755. [PMID: 31853790 DOI: 10.1007/s40620-019-00683-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The presence of circulating permeability factors (cPFs) has been hypothesized to be associated with recurrence of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (rFSGS) in renal allografts. The available methods to detect cPFs are complex, not easily repeatable and inappropriate to represent the anatomical characteristics of the three-layer glomerular filtration barrier (GFB). Here we describe a novel method which measures the permeability to bovine serum albumin (BSA) through a three-layer device (3LD). The 3 layers comprise: (1) conditionally immortalized human podocytes (HCiPodo), (2) collagen type IV coated porous membrane and (3) human glomerular endothelial cells (HCiGEnC). Using this method, we found that sera from all rFSGS patients increased albumin permeability, while sera from non recurrent (nrFSGS) and genetic (gFSGS) forms of FSGS did not. The mechanisms underlying the increase of albumin permeability are probably due to endothelial cell damage as an initial event, which was demonstrated by the decrease of Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM-1 or CD31), while the podocytes' expressions of synaptopodin and podocin were normal. Furthermore, we also found that the plasmapheretic treatment (PPT) eliminated the effect of increasing BSA permeability in sera from rFSGS patients. These preliminary data suggest that our in vitro GFB model could not only be useful in predicting the recurrence of FSGS after renal transplantation (RTx), but also be a valuable in vitro model to study podocyte and endothelial cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Renal Research Laboratory, Foundation Ca' Granda, Milan, Italy
| | - Carlo Maria Alfieri
- Unit of Adult Nephrology, Dialysis and Renal Transplant, Department of Medicine, Foundation Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Via Commenda 15, 20122, Milan, Italy
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Università degli studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - William Morello
- Pediatric Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplant Unit, Foundation IRCCS Cà Granda, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Cellesi
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali ed Ingegneria Chimica "G. Natta", Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Armelloni
- IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Renal Research Laboratory, Foundation Ca' Granda, Milan, Italy
| | - Deborah Mattinzoli
- IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Renal Research Laboratory, Foundation Ca' Granda, Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni Montini
- Pediatric Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplant Unit, Foundation IRCCS Cà Granda, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Università degli studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Piergiorgio Messa
- Unit of Adult Nephrology, Dialysis and Renal Transplant, Department of Medicine, Foundation Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Via Commenda 15, 20122, Milan, Italy.
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Università degli studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.
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Li M, Corbelli A, Watanabe S, Armelloni S, Ikehata M, Parazzi V, Pignatari C, Giardino L, Mattinzoli D, Lazzari L, Puliti A, Cellesi F, Zennaro C, Messa P, Rastaldi MP. Three-dimensional podocyte-endothelial cell co-cultures: Assembly, validation, and application to drug testing and intercellular signaling studies. Eur J Pharm Sci 2016; 86:1-12. [PMID: 26924225 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2016.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Proteinuria is a common symptom of glomerular diseases and is due to leakage of proteins from the glomerular filtration barrier, a three-layer structure composed by two post-mitotic highly specialized and interdependent cell populations, i.e. glomerular endothelial cells and podocytes, and the basement membrane in between. Despite enormous progresses made in the last years, pathogenesis of proteinuria remains to be completely uncovered. Studies in the field could largely benefit from an in vitro model of the glomerular filter, but such a system has proved difficult to realize. Here we describe a method to obtain and utilize a three-dimensional podocyte-endothelial co-culture which can be largely adopted by the scientific community because it does not rely on special instruments nor on the synthesis of devoted biomaterials. The device is composed by a porous membrane coated on both sides with type IV collagen. Adhesion of podocytes on the upper side of the membrane has to be preceded by VEGF-induced maturation of endothelial cells on the lower side. The co-culture can be assembled with podocyte cell lines as well as with primary podocytes, extending the use to cells derived from transgenic mice. An albumin permeability assay has been extensively validated and applied as functional readout, enabling rapid drug testing. Additionally, the bottom of the well can be populated with a third cell type, which multiplies the possibilities of analyzing more complex glomerular intercellular signaling events. In conclusion, the ease of assembly and versatility of use are the major advantages of this three-dimensional model of the glomerular filtration barrier over existing methods. The possibility to run a functional test that reliably measures albumin permeability makes the device a valid companion in several research applications ranging from drug screening to intercellular signaling studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Alessandro Corbelli
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Bio-imaging Unit, Department of Cardiovascular Research, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Shojiro Watanabe
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Silvia Armelloni
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Masami Ikehata
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Valentina Parazzi
- Cell Factory, Unit of Cell Therapy and Cryobiology, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Chiara Pignatari
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Laura Giardino
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Deborah Mattinzoli
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Lorenza Lazzari
- Cell Factory, Unit of Cell Therapy and Cryobiology, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Aldamaria Puliti
- Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health (DiNOGMI), University of Genoa, via G. Gaslini 5, 16148 Genoa, Italy; Medical Genetics Unit, Istituto Giannina Gaslini, via G. Gaslini 5, 16148 Genoa, Italy.
| | - Francesco Cellesi
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "G.Natta", Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy; Fondazione CEN - European Centre for Nanomedicine, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Cristina Zennaro
- Laboratory of Renal Physiopathology, Department of Medical, Surgical, and Health Sciences, Trieste University, via Strada di Fiume 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy.
| | - Piergiorgio Messa
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
| | - Maria Pia Rastaldi
- Renal Research Laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; Fondazione D'Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy.
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