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Ji W, Abou Khalil C, Boufadel M, Coelho G, Daskiran C, Robinson B, King T, Lee K, Galus M. Impact of mixing and resting times on the droplet size distribution and the petroleum hydrocarbons' concentration in diluted bitumen-based water-accommodated fractions (WAFs). Chemosphere 2022; 296:133807. [PMID: 35131278 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The preparation of Water-accommodated Fractions (WAFs) and chemically enhanced WAFs (CEWAFs) are essential for evaluating oil toxicity. The Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Research Forum (CROSERF) method was widely adopted, with variables (e.g., mixing time, oil loading, etc.) being continuously changed among research groups, which limits the cooperation in this area. Herein, we conducted WAF and CEWAF experiments using two loadings of diluted bitumen (Dilbit): 1 g/L and 10 g/L. For the CEWAF, the dispersant to oil ratio was 1:20. We investigated the impact of three mixing durations (18 h, 42 h, and 66 h) and two resting times (6 h and 24 h) on the droplet size distribution (DSD) and accommodated oil concentration. This would be highly beneficial for analyzing toxicity from oil spills, especially when considering the toxic effect of both suspended oil droplets and dissolved hydrocarbons. The DSD results and oil chemistry analysis showed that at a low oil loading concentration (1 g/L), both WAFs and CEWAFs had the same DSD, with an average d50 (volume median diameter) of 3.38 ± 0.70 μm and 3.85 ± 0.63 μm, respectively. At a high oil loading concentration (10 g/L), the WAFs had an average d50 of 3.69 ± 0.52 μm, showing no correlation with mixing and resting time. The DSD of CEWAFs increased significantly at 42 h mixing and 24 h resting time, with oil concentration reaching equilibrium after 42 h mixing. Therefore, WAFs appears to require only 18 h mixing and 6 h resting, while it is recommended to have 42 h mixing and 24 h resting for CEWAFs at high dilbit oil loading concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Ji
- Center for Natural Resources, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, 323 MLK Blvd, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
| | - Charbel Abou Khalil
- Center for Natural Resources, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, 323 MLK Blvd, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
| | - Michel Boufadel
- Center for Natural Resources, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, 323 MLK Blvd, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA.
| | - Gina Coelho
- Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement, Department of Interior, 45600 Woodland Rd, Sterling, VA, 20166, USA
| | - Cosan Daskiran
- Center for Natural Resources, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, 323 MLK Blvd, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
| | - Brian Robinson
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Dartmouth, 1 Challenger Dr, Dartmouth, NS, B2Y 4A2, Canada
| | - Thomas King
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Dartmouth, 1 Challenger Dr, Dartmouth, NS, B2Y 4A2, Canada
| | - Kenneth Lee
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Dartmouth, 1 Challenger Dr, Dartmouth, NS, B2Y 4A2, Canada
| | - Michal Galus
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa, 200 Kent St, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0E6, Canada
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Sherwood TA, Rodgers ML, Tarnecki AM, Wetzel DL. Characterization of the differential expressed genes and transcriptomic pathway analysis in the liver of sub-adult red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) exposed to Deepwater Horizon chemically dispersed oil. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2021; 214:112098. [PMID: 33662787 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The Deepwater Horizon blowout resulted in the second-largest quantity of chemical dispersants used as a countermeasure for an open water oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Of which, the efficacy of dispersant as a mitigation strategy and its toxic effects on aquatic fauna remains controversial. To enhance our understanding of potential sub-lethal effects of exposure to chemically dispersed-oil, sub-adult red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) were continuously exposed to a Corexit 9500: DWH crude oil chemically enhanced water accommodated fraction (CEWAF) for 3-days and transcriptomic responses were assessed in the liver. Differential expressed gene (DEG) analysis demonstrated that 63 genes were significantly impacted in the CEWAF exposed fish. Of these, 37 were upregulated and 26 downregulated. The upregulated genes were primarily involved in metabolism and oxidative stress, whereas several immune genes were downregulated. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR further confirmed upregulation of cytochrome P450 and glutathione S-transferase, along with downregulation of fucolectin 2 and chemokine C-C motif ligand 20. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) predicted 120 pathways significantly altered in the CEWAF exposed red drum. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway was significantly activated, while pathways associated with immune and cellular homeostasis were primarily suppressed. The results of this study indicate that CEWAF exposure significantly affects gene expression and alters signaling of biological pathways important in detoxification, immunity, and normal cellular physiology, which can have potential consequences on organismal fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy A Sherwood
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Pkwy, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA.
| | - Maria L Rodgers
- Division of Coastal Sciences, School of Ocean Science and Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Ocean Springs, MS 39564, USA
| | - Andrea M Tarnecki
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Pkwy, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA
| | - Dana L Wetzel
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Pkwy, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA
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González-Penagos CE, Zamora-Briseño JA, Cerqueda-García D, Améndola-Pimenta M, Pérez-Vega JA, Hernández-Nuñez E, Rodríguez-Canul R. Alterations in the Gut Microbiota of Zebrafish ( Danio rerio) in Response to Water-Soluble Crude Oil Components and Its Mixture With a Chemical Dispersant. Front Public Health 2020; 8:584953. [PMID: 33194990 PMCID: PMC7649143 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.584953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Crude oil spills have caused substantial impacts to aquatic ecosystems. Chemical dispersants are used to palliate the impact of oil spillages, but their use is polemic due to their additional potential toxic effect when mixed with oil-derived components. In this work, we used a 16S-based metagenomic approach to analyze the changes of the gut microbiota of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to the water accommodated fraction (WAF) of a light crude oil (35° API gravity), and the chemically enhanced WAF (CEWAF), prepared with Nokomis 3-F4® dispersant. After 96 h of exposure, WAF induced an increase in the alpha and beta diversity, altering the relative abundance of Vibrio, Flavobacterium, and Novosphingobium. In contrast, CEWAF only caused an increase in the beta diversity, and an enrichment of the genus Pseudomona. Both treatments diminished the abundances of Aeromonas, Cetobacterium, Coxiella, Dinghuibacter, and Paucibacter. Moreover, the co-occurrence network among genera was more complex in WAF than in CEWAF, indicating a greater bacterial interaction in response to WAF. Our results indicate that short-term exposure to WAF and CEWAF can induce a dysbiosis in the gut microbiota of D. rerio, but these changes are specific in each treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Eduardo González-Penagos
- Departamento de Recursos del Mar, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional-Unidad Mérida, Mérida, Mexico
| | - Jesús Alejandro Zamora-Briseño
- Departamento de Recursos del Mar, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional-Unidad Mérida, Mérida, Mexico
| | - Daniel Cerqueda-García
- Departamento de Recursos del Mar, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional-Unidad Mérida, Mérida, Mexico
| | - Monica Améndola-Pimenta
- Departamento de Recursos del Mar, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional-Unidad Mérida, Mérida, Mexico
| | - Juan Antonio Pérez-Vega
- Departamento de Recursos del Mar, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional-Unidad Mérida, Mérida, Mexico
| | - Emanuel Hernández-Nuñez
- Departamento de Recursos del Mar, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional-Unidad Mérida, Mérida, Mexico.,CONACYT - Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mérida, Mexico
| | - Rossanna Rodríguez-Canul
- Departamento de Recursos del Mar, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional-Unidad Mérida, Mérida, Mexico
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Tairova Z, Frantzen M, Mosbech A, Arukwe A, Gustavson K. Effects of water accommodated fraction of physically and chemically dispersed heavy fuel oil on beach spawning capelin (Mallotus villosus). Mar Environ Res 2019; 147:62-71. [PMID: 31047709 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2019.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Due to a northward shift in off-shore activities, including increased shipping traffic and oil and gas exploration there is a growing focus on the potential effects of oil pollution on Arctic marine ecosystems. Capelin (Mallotus villosus) is a small fish and a member of the smelt family, and is a key species in the marine food chain. Capelin are seasonally abundant in the Northern Atlantic and in coastal Arctic waters, e.g. in western Greenland and in the Barents Sea, where it undertakes aggregated spawning in the intertidal and subtidal zone. To study the possible effects of oil pollution on the physiology and development of early life stages in capelin, freshly fertilised capelin eggs were exposed to a water accommodated fraction of physically (WAF) and chemically (CEWAF) dispersed heavy fuel oil (IFO30) for 72 h. Subsequent mortality, hatching success, larvae malformations, growth and CYP1A/EROD activity was measured over a 4-week period. The nominal exposure concentrations of WAF and CEWAF were between 0.02 and 14.5 mg total hydrocarbon content (THC) L-1 and 0.5-304 mg THC L-1, respectively. Egg mortality correlated significantly with WAF exposure concentration. The proportions of hatched eggs decreased with increasing CEWAF exposure concentration. Further, the percentage of malformed larvae with craniofacial abnormalities, body axis defects, generally under developed larvae, reduced total body length (dwarfs), correlated significantly with exposure concentrations in both CEWAF and WAF treatments. The four types of the predominant malformations were distributed differently in two parallel experiments. At the biochemical level, we observed a significant relationship between CEWAF exposure concentration and CYP1A/EROD activity in newly hatched larvae and this effect persisted for 3 weeks after the 72 h exposure. We conclude that even short-term exposure to both heavy fuel oil WAF and CEWAF, at environmentally relevant THC concentrations following an oil spill, may induce adverse developmental effects on the vulnerable early life stages of capelin. The mechanisms responsible for the observed effects on mortality, growth and embryo development in capelin eggs and embryos following WAF and CEWAF exposure require further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanna Tairova
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, Box 358, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark; Department of Biosciences, The Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Postboks 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Marianne Frantzen
- Akvaplan-niva AS, Fram Centre, P.O. Box 6606 Langnes, 9296 Tromsø, Norway.
| | - Anders Mosbech
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, Box 358, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Augustine Arukwe
- Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science & Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Kim Gustavson
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, Box 358, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
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Jasperse L, Levin M, Tsantiris K, Smolowitz R, Perkins C, Ward JE, De Guise S. Comparative toxicity of Corexit ® 9500, oil, and a Corexit ®/oil mixture on the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). Aquat Toxicol 2018; 203:10-18. [PMID: 30064050 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2018.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Given their particle feeding behavior, sessile nature, and abundance in coastal zones, bivalves are at significant risk for exposure to oil and oil dispersant following environmental disasters like the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. However, the effects of oil combined with oil dispersants on the health of oysters are not well studied. Therefore, eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) were exposed in vivo to Corexit® 9500, crude oil (high-energy water accommodated fraction; HEWAF), and a Corexit®/oil mixture (chemically-enhanced water accommodated fraction; CEWAF) to evaluate potential toxic effects on immunological (phagocytosis and respiratory burst), physiological (feeding rate), and histological endpoints. Phagocytosis was significantly increased following CEWAF exposure only. Respiratory burst was significantly decreased following Corexit® exposure, but significantly increased following exposure to the highest concentration of CEWAF. Oyster feeding rates were significantly decreased following exposure to Corexit®, HEWAF, and CEWAF, and were most sensitive to CEWAF exposure. These modulations of important immunological and physiological functions could result in serious health outcomes for oysters, such as increased parasitism and decreased growth. Our experiments showed that subtle, sub-lethal effects occurred following acute in vivo exposure to Corexit®, HEWAF, and CEWAF, though oysters were not equally sensitive to the three components. Data from this study can be used for more accurate risk assessment concerning the impact of oil and Corexit® on the health of oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Jasperse
- University of Connecticut, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, Storrs, CT, USA.
| | - Milton Levin
- University of Connecticut, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, Storrs, CT, USA; University of Connecticut, Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Katherine Tsantiris
- University of Connecticut, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Roxanna Smolowitz
- Roger Williams University, Department of Biology, Marine Biology, and Environmental Science, Bristol, RI, USA
| | - Christopher Perkins
- University of Connecticut, Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - J Evan Ward
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, Groton, CT, USA
| | - Sylvain De Guise
- University of Connecticut, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, Storrs, CT, USA; Connecticut Sea Grant College Program, Groton, CT, USA
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6
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Duffy TA, Childress W, Portier R, Chesney EJ. Responses of bay anchovy (Anchoa mitchilli) larvae under lethal and sublethal scenarios of crude oil exposure. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2016; 134P1:264-272. [PMID: 27639700 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Revised: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Bay anchovy (Anchoa mitchilli) is an ecologically important zooplanktivorous fish inhabiting estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico and eastern North America from Maine to Florida. Because they have a protracted spawning season (spring through fall) and are abundant at all life stages in coastal estuaries, their eggs and larvae likely encountered oil that reached the coast during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. We compared responses to oil exposure at different life stages and at lethal and sublethal conditions using acute, 24h exposures. In a series of experiments, bay anchovy larvae were exposed to high energy water accommodated fractions (HEWAF) and chemically-enhanced WAF (CEWAF) at two stages of larval development (5 and 21 days post hatch, dph). HEWAF oil exposures induced significantly greater life stage dependent sensitivity at 5 dph than at 21 dph but chemically dispersed (CEWAF) exposure mortality was more variable and LC50s were not significantly different between 5 and 21dph larvae. Acute exposure to two low-level concentrations of CEWAF did not result in significant mortality over 24h, but resulted in a 25-77% reduction in larval survival and a 12-34% reduction in weight specific growth after six days of post-exposure growth following the initial 24h exposure. These results show that younger (5 dph) bay anchovy larvae are more vulnerable to acute oil exposure than older (21 dph) larvae, and that acute responses do not accurately reflect potential population level mortality and impacts to growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara A Duffy
- Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, 8124 Hwy 56, Chauvin, LA 70344, USA.
| | - William Childress
- Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, 8124 Hwy 56, Chauvin, LA 70344, USA; Aquatic Germplasm and Genetic Resources Center, Department of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 2288 Gourrier Ave, Baton Rouge, LA 70802, USA
| | - Ralph Portier
- Louisiana State University, Department of Environmental Sciences, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Edward J Chesney
- Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, 8124 Hwy 56, Chauvin, LA 70344, USA
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Vignier J, Donaghy L, Soudant P, Chu FLE, Morris JM, Carney MW, Lay C, Krasnec M, Robert R, Volety AK. Impacts of Deepwater Horizon oil and associated dispersant on early development of the Eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mar Pollut Bull 2015; 100:426-437. [PMID: 26320981 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/02/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil platform resulted in large amounts of crude oil and dispersant Corexit 9500A® released into the Gulf of Mexico and coincided with the spawning season of the oyster, Crassostrea virginica. The effects of exposing gametes and embryos of C. virginica to dispersant alone (Corexit), mechanically (HEWAF) and chemically dispersed (CEWAF) DWH oil were evaluated. Fertilization success and the morphological development, growth, and survival of larvae were assessed. Gamete exposure reduced fertilization (HEWAF: EC201h=1650μg tPAH50L(-1); CEWAF: EC201h=19.4μg tPAH50L(-1); Corexit: EC201h=6.9mgL(-1)). CEWAF and Corexit showed a similar toxicity on early life stages at equivalent nominal concentrations. Oysters exposed from gametes to CEWAF and Corexit experienced more deleterious effects than oysters exposed from embryos. Results suggest the presence of oil and dispersant during oyster spawning season may interfere with larval development and subsequent recruitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Vignier
- Department of Marine and Ecological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, USA; Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (UMR 6539-LEMAR), IUEM-UBO, Technopole Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - L Donaghy
- Department of Marine and Ecological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, USA
| | - P Soudant
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (UMR 6539-LEMAR), IUEM-UBO, Technopole Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - F L E Chu
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), College of William and Mary, Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
| | | | | | - C Lay
- Abt Associates, Boulder, CO 80302, USA
| | - M Krasnec
- Abt Associates, Boulder, CO 80302, USA
| | - R Robert
- Ifremer, Unité Littoral, Centre Bretagne - ZI de la Pointe du Diable - CS, 10070-29280 Plouzané, France
| | - A K Volety
- Department of Marine and Ecological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, USA.
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Lee KW, Shim WJ, Yim UH, Kang JH. Acute and chronic toxicity study of the water accommodated fraction (WAF), chemically enhanced WAF ( CEWAF) of crude oil and dispersant in the rock pool copepod Tigriopus japonicus. Chemosphere 2013; 92:1161-1168. [PMID: 23466279 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.01.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Revised: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We determined the toxicity of the water accommodated hydrocarbon fraction (WAF), two chemically enhanced WAFs (CEWAFs; CEWAF-C, Crude oil+Corexit 9500 and CEWAF-H, Crude oil+Hiclean) of crude oil and two dispersants (Corexit 9500 and Hiclean) to the rock pool copepod Tigriopus japonicus. In the acute toxicity test, Corexit 9500 was the most toxic of all the chemicals studied. The nauplius stage of T. japonicus was more susceptible to the toxic chemicals studied than the adult female. The toxicity data using the nauplius stage was then considered as baseline to determine the spiking concentration of chemicals for chronic toxicity tests on the copepod. As the endpoints in the chronic toxicity test, survival, sex ratio, developmental time and fecundity of the copepod were used. All chemicals used in this study resulted in increased toxicity in the F1 generation. The lowest-observed-adverse-effect (LOAE) concentrations of WAF, CEWAF-H, CEWAF-C, Hiclean and Corexit 9500 were observed to be 50%, 10%, 0.1%, 1% and 1%, respectively. The results in present study imply that copepods in marine may be negatively influenced by spilled oil and dispersant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyun-Woo Lee
- South Sea Environment Research Department, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, 391 Jangmok-myon, Geoje-shi 656-834, South Korea
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